AGRIC,  DEFT, 


CONCRETE 
REVIEW 


CONCRETE 

IN    THE 


COUN     RY 


BULLETIN  No.  26 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  ASSOCIATION  OF  AMERICAN  PORTLAND 
CEMENT  MANUFACTURERS-LANDTITLEBLDG-PHIIA- 


PRICE,  25  CENTS 


CONCRETE  IN 
THE  COUNTRY 


Price,  25  cents 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

ASSOCIATION  OF  AMERICAN  PORTLAND 
CEMENT  MANUFACTURERS 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Copyrighted,  1910,  by  Association  of  American  Portland 
Cement  Manufacturers 


Qept 


INDEX 


Special  Index  to  Directions 

Bank-run  gravel 13 

Cleaning  forms 24 

Definition  of  concrete 9 

Dry  mixture 13 

Forms 22-24 

Gravel 10,  13 

Hand-mixing 17-21 

Materials 9,  10 

Measuring  boxes 12 

Measuring  materials 1 1-13 

Medium  mixture 13 

Mixing 1 5-22 

Natural  mixture 13,  20 

Placing 25,  26 

Portland  cement 9 

Proportions 11-13 

Protection  of  concrete  after  placing 26 

Publications  issued  by  the  Association 8 

Quantities  of  materials 21 ,  22 

Reinforcement 26,  27 

Runs 15 

Sand  as  an  aggregate 9 

Selecting  lumber  for  forms 23 

Stone  as  an  aggregate 10 

Tools * « [.  :?*....  *  .„'..'.  t  ,i ; .  • 15 

Wet  mixture ".  .*t  ....!."!..*.!".'.  .*•.•.* 13 

General  Index 

Acetylene  gas  house 83-87 

Alleyways 41 

Barns 62 

Barn  approach *. 60 

Barn  floors 54~59 

Barn  foundations 61,62 

Barnyard  pavements 47,  48 

Base  for  machinery 87-89 

Bee  cellars 92,  93 

Carriage  house  entrance 39 

Carriage  washing  floor 42 


PAGE 

Cellar  steps  and  hatchway 90,  9 1 

Chimney 50,  51 

Chimney  caps '      97 

Cistern  covers 69 

Cisterns 68-70,  72-73 

Coal  house .  *.  . 83-87 

Cold  frame 99,  100 

Concrete  in  the  country 5-8 

Corn  crib  floor 53 

Corner  stones 105 

Cow  barn  floors 55~58 

Culverts 108,  109 

Cyclone  cellar 92-93 

Dairy 83-87 

Dipping  vats  arid  tanks 76-80 

Dog  kennel 83-87 

Drain  tile  outlet 106 

Drinking  troughs  and  tanks 74»  75 

Driveway  of  concrete 40,  41 

Drop  gutters 54~59 

Duck  pond 95 

Engine  base  foundation 87,  88 

Engine  house 82-89 

Entrance  floor 39 

Farm  buildings 82-89 

Feed  cooker 50,  51 

Fading  floors , 43~45 

Feeding  troughs,  racks  and  mangers 49,  50 

Fence  posts 104 

Field  rollers 102 

Field  spring  improvement 70,  71 

Floors .  .  39, 42, 45, 47, 48,  53~56>  58,  79»  82>  83,  87,  98 

Foundation  gutter 35 

Fruit  cellars 92,  93 

Garbage  receiver 103 

Gasoline  engine  base   87,  88 

Gate  posts 104,  105 

Granary  floors 53 

Gutters . . 35 

Hatchway  for  cellar  steps 90,  91 

Hay  cap  weights 103 

Hen  house 94 

Hens'  nests 94 

Hitching  post •  •••.• 104 

Hog  wallows 52 

Horse  barn  floors 58,  59 

Hot  bed 99,  100 

Housing  for  driven  well 67,  68 

Hydraulic  ram  house 89 

271261 

3 


PAGE 

Ice  house 83-87 

Lawn  roller 102 

Mangers 49,  50,  57,  59 

Manure  pits  and  cisterns 45 

Milk  house 83-87 

Milk  vat 81,82 

Nests  for  hens 94 

Old  buildings  and  their  repair 36-38 

Porch  floor 98,  99 

Posts  for  fences  and  gates 104 

Posts,  hitching 104 

Poultry  house 94 

Ram  house 89 

Repairs  to  farm  buildings 36-38 

Retaining  wall  and  steps 96,  97 

Roadways 40,  41 

Root  cellar 92,  93 

Rollers 102 

Sanitary  water  supply 67-75 

Septic  tanks 1 10,  1 1 1 

Sidewalks 28-34 

Silos 65,  66 

Small  farm  buildings  82-89 

Smoke  house 83-87 

Snow  fences 63,  64 

Spraying  tanks 107 

Spring  improvements 70,  71 

Steps 90,  91 ,  96,  97 

Stones,  corner 105 

Survey  monuments 105 

Swimming  pool 112 

Tanks 74,  75 

Tarpaulin  weights 103 

Tool  house 83-87 

Trash  burner 103 

Tree  repair icfe 

Troughs 74,  75 

Vegetable  cellar 92,  93 

Walks 28-34 

Walk  specifications 29 

Watering  troughs • 74>  75 

Weights  for  hay  caps  and  tarpaulins 103 

Well  cover 69 

Well  protection 67-70 

Wind  walls 63,64 

Window  hatch 112 

Wiring  forms 23 


Concrete  in  the  Country 

How  the  American  Farmer  is  Solving  His  Conservation 

Problem 

ONSERVATION  is  no  new  problem— it  is  as  old  as  life  itself. 
It  becomes  a  highly  important  question  to  the  person  or  the 
nation  only  when  the  resources  scarcely  supply  the  demands. 
Such  is  the  situation  in  the  United  States  to-day.  In  the  early 
days  the  removal  of  the  forests  was  necessary  that  much  grain 
might  be  grown.  The  young  Nation  had  to  have  money,  and  as 
farming  was  the  only  means  at  hand  to  furnish  it,  the  natural 
fertility  of  the  fields  was  reduced.  But  the  money  thus  supplied  was  merely 
a  long-time  loan  on  the  Bank  of  Natural  Resources.  To-day  the  vanishing 
forests  and  the  failing  fertility  of  the  fields  bear  witness  that  the  loan  is  now 
due.  Hence  the  problem  of  conservation.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  farmer 
is  using  one  material  not  only  to  replace  lumber  but  also,  in  a  way,  to  restore 
the  fertility  of  his  fields — that  material  is  concrete. 

The  national  and  state  governments  and  the  railroads  were  the  first  to  make 
extensive  use  of  concrete.  Not  only  did  the  beauty  and  mystery  of  this  new  con- 
struction naturally  appeal  to  the  farmer,  but  he  concluded  that  the  railroads  did 
not  use  it,  in  preference  to  wood,  steel  and  stone,  merely  to  decorate  the  landscape. 
He  knew  too  much  about  railroads.  So  strongly  did  the  railroads'  idea  of  economy 
(the  dollar  argument)  appeal  to  him  that  the  farmer  of  the  West  is  now  building 
practically  everything  about  the  farm  of  concrete.  At  first,  and  quite  naturally, 
land-owners  in  the  rock  and  gravel  regions  began  using  this  new  form  of  construc- 
tion; but,  since  its  cheapness  in  first  cost  and  value  in  lasting  qualities  have  become 
generally  known,  a  wave  of  enthusiasm  for  farm  structures  of  concrete  has  swept 
the  entire  country.  A  gravel  pit  is  now  more  valuable  than  many  a  gold  mine. 

With  little  help  other  than  looking  and  listening,  the  farmer  grasped  the  idea 
of  a  concrete  walk,  and  being  a  natural  inventor  and  jack-of-all-trades,  improved  on 
the  method  by  adding  a  small  curb  next  to  his  flower  bed  to  keep  the  dirt  from 
washing  on  the  white  walk.  This  walk  was  a  blessing  to  the  boy — all  the  time 
formerly  given  to  scrubbing  and  weeding  the  old  brick  walk  could  now  be  devoted 
to  fishing.  The  yard  walk  was  extended  to  the  barns  and  outlying  buildings. 
Wading  through  seas  of  mud  and  resulting  tracked-up  kitchen  floors  became  a 
thing  of  the  past.  By  simply  increasing  the  width  of  the  walk,  a  cellar  floor 
was  provided  and  the  farmer  had  a  dry  cellar.  This  was  so  clean  and  so  odorless 
that  he  considered  such  a  floor  fit  for  that  most  immaculate  of  all  places — the 
milk  house.  Concrete  cellar  hatchway  and  steps,  safe  under  the  heaviest  barrel  of 
vinegar,  and  water-tight,  were  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  walks, 

Brick  work  had  long  been  laid  up  in  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  sand. 


As  this  kept  thf  wayer  out,  the  farniei  reasoned  that  it  would  keep  the  water  in,  and 
he  started  to  build  cistern  floors,  walls  and  cover  of  Portland  cement  concrete  at 
one-third  to  one-half  the  cost  of  the  old  brick  cistern. 

After  a  little  more  observation,  he  quit  digging  deep  cistern-pits,  with  the 
necessary  annoyance  of  thawing  out  frozen  pumps  and  carrying  water — he  built  a 
concrete  cistern  on  top  of  the  ground  and  made  the  pumping  and  carrying  of  the 
water  a  mere  matter  of  turning  a  faucet  in  the  kitchen  and  the  bath  room. 

Several  years  ago  corn  was  so  cheap  that  in  some  sections  it  was  burned  for 
fuel  instead  of  coal.  No  consideration  was  then  given  to  the  bushels  wasted  in 
muddy  feed  lots.  If  the  mud  became  too  deep,  the  feeding  was  transferred  to  the 
blue  grass  pasture.  To  be  sure,  as  the  sod  wore  out,  the  feeding-place  had  to  be 
changed;  but  somebody  had  advanced  the  idea  that  this  particular  method  of 
feeding  was  good  for  the  soil.  Many  farmers  had  tried  wooden  feeding  floors  and 
had  found  them  a  paying  proposition  as  far  as  the  saving  of  feed  was  concerned,  in 
the  general  health  of  the  animal,  and  in  the  shortened  time  of  fattening.  But  two 
great  drawbacks  were  the  rats  that  infested  them  and  the  constant  need  of  re- 
pairs. In  concrete  the  thoughtful  farmer  saw  the  possibilities  of  an  ideal  floor — an 
easily  cleaned,  rat-proof,  disease-proof  surface  upon  which  his  hogs,  sheep,  cattle 
and  poultry  might  consume  the  feed  even  to  the  smallest  particle. 

So  satisfactory  did  the  feeding  floor  prove  that  the  same  treatment  suggested 
itself  as  a  remedy  for  the  fly-breeding,  muddy  holes  in  the  earthen  floors  and  the 
rat-infested  wooden  floors  of  the  barns.  But  the  careful  horseman  held  up  a  bit: 
he  was  afraid  that  stamping  at  the  flies,  his  valuable  Percherons,  Shires  and  Mor- 
gans might  stiffen  up  their  legs.  He  experimented  by  placing  concrete  floors  in 
his  open  sheds,  which  were  usually  too  muddy  for  the  stock  to  lie  down  in  stormy 
weather,  just  when  the  straw  stacks  afforded  no  protection  and  when  he  needed 
the  sheds  most,  and  found  such  floors  satisfactory. 

To-day  the  manure  question  is  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  of 
the  time.  The  virgin  soil  of  the  prairies,  of  the  cleared  woodlands  and  of  the 
broken-up  ranges,  for  a  few  years  produced  immense  crops  of  cotton  and  grain. 
To  build  up  the  decreasing  productiveness  of  the  fields  the  farmer  soon  learned  that 
barnyard  manure  was  the  best  thing  at  hand.  The  passing  of  the  cattle  ranch  and 
the  resulting  higher  price  of  meats  made  stock  raising  very  profitable  even  to  tn£ 
small  farmer,  especially  since  feeding  floors  made  it  possible  for  him  to  return  to 
the  soil,  in  the  form  of  manure,  all  the  fertility  which  had  been  removed  in  the 
growing  of  grain.  Leaving  out  the  matter  of  foods,  the  strength  of  manure  is 
dependent  directly  upon  its  manner  of  storage.  Manure  piled  on  the  bare  ground 
or  in  wooden  pens  loses  one-third  to  one-half  of  its  fertilizing  properties  on  account 
of  leaching,  due  to  heavy  rains  and  tramping  of  the  stock,  and  later  because  of 
fermentation  or  "  firing  "  brought  about  by  the  lack  of  sufficient  moisture.  This 
fertilizer  usually  sells  at  from  75  cents  to  $1.00  per  load. 

The  farmer  of  to-day  builds  a  water-tight  concrete  cistern  or  pit  in  which  he 
stores  the  manure  and  keeps  it  as  moist  as  need  be.  He  extended  the  concrete 
floors  to  the  dairy  barns  with  the  result  that  they  were  so  clean,  so  odorless  and  so 
sanitary  that  state  inspection  is  now  often  insisting  and  will  soon  force  careless 


dairymen  to  put  in  such  floors  as  a  means  of  protecting  the  public  health  from 
disease  germs  carried  in  unclean  milk.  The  drop-gutters  carry  all  the  liquids,  the 
richest  part  of  the  manure,  formerly  wasted,  to  the  manure  pits.  Consequently, 
one  load  of  manure,  thus  properly  preserved,  is  easily  worth  two  loads  as  ordinarily 
stored.  By  confining  the  manure  in  pits  and  by  paving  the  barn  lot  with  concrete, 
the  farm  has  been  rid  of  the  chief  breeding-place  of  flies,  gnats,  mosquitos  and 
disease.  Moreover,  such  an  interior  court,  surrounded  by  buildings  and  concrete 
wind-walls,  forms  an  excellent  feed  and  winter  exercise  lot. 

Government  statistics  show  that  the  human  death-rate  on  the  farm,  in  spite 
of  the  fresh  food  and  pure  air,  is  greater  than  the  death-rate  in  the  city.  State 
University  tests  of  drinking-water  have  shown  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  waters  of 
many  ordinary  shallow  and  unprotected  wells  contain  the  germs  of  such  dangerous 
diseases  as  typhoid  fever.  To  prevent  the  polluted  surface  waters  from  seeping 
into  the  well,  many  people  are  covering  their  wells  and  walling  them  up  with 
water-tight  concrete.  Others  are  sinking  "driven  "  wells  and  protecting  them  with 
concrete  housings.  The  principle  of  deep  wells  for  pure  water,  among  other  things, 
has  made  gasoline  engines  a  necessity  on  the  farm.  These  engines  and  hydraulic 
rams  at  springs,  firmly  set  and  housed  in  concrete,  supply  an  abundance  of  water 
for  the  concrete  reservoirs  or  elevated,  reinforced  pressure  tanks.  From  these 
places  of  storage  water  is  distributed  to  float-controlled,  rot-proof  watering  tanks 
and  troughs  of  the  same  material.  With  such  a  water-supply  animals  never  suffer 
for  water.  Even  springs  and  mouths  of  drain  tile  are  improved  and  the  water 
made  clean  and  wholesome  by  the  use  of  concrete. 

Thus  the  conservative  farmer  of  the  present  time  gives  careful  attention  to  the 
health,  comfort  and  convenience  of  his  family.  Moreover,  the  care  of  the  animals 
is  not  neglected.  A  concrete  dipping  vat  holds  the  liquids  which  free  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  hogs  of  mange,  lice,  mites,  ticks  and  fleas.  The  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture is  stamping  out  the  Texas  fever  and  sheep  scab  by  insisting  on  the  use  of 
dipping  tanks  throughout  all  quarantined  districts.  A  hog  wallow  with  concrete 
sides  and  bottoms  gives  the  hog  the  pleasure  afforded  by  running  streams  and  at 
the  same  time  protects  him  from  the  cholera  often  carried  down  from  animals 
affected  further  up  stream. 

The  continual  rotting  off  of  wooden  fence  posts,  the  constantly  increasing 
cost  of  new  ones,  and  the  annual  expense  of  fence  repairs,  called  for  the  intro- 
duction of  some  substitute.  Land  is  entirely  too  valuable  and  life  too  short  to 
attempt  growing  wooden  posts.  Even  before  the  telephone  and  telegraph  com- 
panies had  thought  of  the  possibilities  of  concrete  in  this  line,  a  few  venturesome 
farmers  had  given  reinforced  concrete  posts  a  trial  and  found  their  use  not  only 
advisable  from  the  standpoint  of  cheapness  in  first  cost,  but  more  profitable  on 
account  of  their  everlasting  qualities.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington has  thoroughly  investigated  the  use  and  methods  of  making  concrete  posts 
and  is  furnishing  a  free  bulletin  describing  the  process.  Such  posts  are  also  val- 
uable in  the  culture  of  grapes  and  hops.* 

The  use  of  concrete  in  farm  buildings  has  gradually  developed  from  the  ground 
*  Farmers'  Bulletin  403,  Concrete  Fence  Posts.  Sent  free  on  application. 


upward.  The  drip  soon  rots  out  timber  near  the  ground  and  eventually  crumbles 
away  the  brick  foundation.  At  first,  uselessly  making  the  walls  as  heavy  as  those 
of  brick,  the  farmer  gave  concrete  a  trial  in  foundations.  Concrete  is  stronger  than 
brick.  As  a  wall  it  kept  the  basement  and  bank  barn  dry.  The  height  of  the 
foundation  wall  increased  until  it  supported  the  joists  of  the  hay  loft.  Finally, 
after  a  study  of  methods  of  reinforcing,  the  entire  barn — basement,  walls,  floors, 
mangers,  troughs,  gutters,  beams  and  even  the  shingles — became  concrete. 
Matches  or  lanterns  accidentally  dropped  on  concrete  floors  in  concrete  barns  do 
not  cause  the  terror  of  former  times.  The  oil  will  burn  until  smothered  out  with 
a  horse  blanket,  but  no  further  damage  will  be  done. 

Poultry  raising  on  many  farms  has  become  well-nigh  impossible  on  account  of 
rats.  To  free  the  farm  of  these  destructive  animals,  as  a  last  resort  and  in  spite  of 
the  assertions  that  the  grain  would  spoil,  the  thoroughly  provoked  farmer  put  con- 
crete floors  under  his  cribs  and  granaries.  Corn  matured  enough  not  to  spoil  on 
other  floors  kept  perfectly  on  concrete.  The  rats  had  to  go;  they  could  not  get 
through  such  floors.  And  so  we  might  continue,  describing  how  farmers  have 
successfully  used  concrete  in  building  every  class  of  structure  from  a  stepping  stone 
to  the  entire  group  of  farm  buildings. 

Just  as  there  are  right  and  wrong  methods  of  farming,  so,  too,  are  there  right 
and  wrong  ways  of  using  concrete.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  book  to  give  such  directions 
and  information  as  will  enable  the  reader  to  build  with  concrete  surely  and  suc- 
cessfully. 

"CONCRETE  IN  THE  COUNTRY"  does  not  pretend  to  fully  cover 
the  subject — the  field  is  too  large  to  be  exhausted  in  one  such  volume.  But  the 
publishers  have  attempted  to  deal  with  as  wide  a  variety  of  types  of  concrete 
construction  as  is  possible  in  the  space  available. 

Fuller  details  are  given  in  other  pamphlets,  which  will  be  furnished  free  to 
anyone  who  will  write  to  the  address  given  on  the  first  page  of  this  book. 


Publications  issued    by  The    Association  of    American  Portland 

Cement  Manufacturers. 

I 

Bulletin  No.    1 — Concrete  Building  Blocks. 
Bulletin  No.  10 — Concrete  Surface  Finish. 

Bulletin  No.  12 — The  Progress  and  Logical  Design  of  Reinforced  Concrete. 
Bulletin  No.  13 — Forms  for  Concrete. 
Bulletin  No.  18 — Reinforced  Concrete  Chimneys. 

Bulletin  No.  19 — The  Use  of  Cement  in  Sewer  Pipe  and  Drain  Tile  Construc- 
tion. 

Bulletin  No.  20— Mixing  and  Placing  Concrete  by  Hand. 
Bulletin  No.  21 — Concrete  Silos. 
Bulletin  No.  22— Cement  Stucco. 
Bulletin  No.  23— Concrete  Tanks. 
Bulletin  No.  24— Reinforced  Concrete  for  Houses. 
Bulletin  No.  25— Concrete  Poles. 
Bulletin  No.  26 — Concrete  in  the  Country. 


What  is  "Concrete"? 

Concrete — a  manufactured  stone — is  made  by  mixing  together  Portland  cement, 
sand  and  stone  (or  gravel).  Various  proportions  of  each  are  used,  depending 
upon  the  use  to  which  the  concrete  is  put.  About  half  an  hour  after  mixing  these 
materials  together,  the  mass  begins  to  stiffen,  until,  in  from  half-a-day  to  a  day, 
it  becomes  so  hard  that  you  cannot  dent  it  with  the  hand.  By  a  month  the  mass 
is  hard  like  stone — indeed,  harder  than  most  stones. 

Materials 

Before  attempting  to  describe  the  actual  process  of  mixing  and  placing  con- 
crete, it  will  be  well  for  us  to  have  a  pretty  clear  understanding  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  materials  with  which  we  are  to  work,  and  how  best  these  may  be  selected. 

Portland  Cement 

Portland  Cement  comes  in  cloth  sacks,  paper  bags  or  wood  barrels,  but  the 
best  way  to  get  it  is  in  cloth  sacks. 

The  wood  barrel  has  practically  been  abandoned  in  the  cement  trade,  and 
there  are  serious  objections  to  the  use  of  the  paper  bag.  The  paper  bag  is  hardly 
strong  enough  to  carry  safely  such  a  heavy  material  as  cement,  and,  furthermore, 
it  makes  the  cement  more  expensive  to  use.  Manufacturers  charge  more  for 
cement  in  cloth  sacks,  but  allow  a  rebate  for  the  return  of  the  empty  sacks.  The 
amount  that  is  added  to  the  price  of  the  cement  for  the  paper  sacks  or  wood 
barrel  is  a  dead  loss,  because  neither  of  these  styles  of  packages  may  be  returned 
for  credit. 

The  paper  or  cloth  bag  of  cement  weighs  95  pounds,  and  four  such  bags  make 
a  barrel  of  380  pounds. 

It  is  important  that  your  stock  of  cement  be  kept  in  a  dry  place. 

Once  wet,  it  becomes  hard  and  lumpy,  and  in  such  condition  is  useless.  If, 
however,  the  lumps  are  caused  by  pressure  in  the  store  house,  the  cement  may  be 
used  with  safety.  Lumps  thus  formed  can  be  easily  broken  by  a  blow  from  the 
back  of  a  shovel. 

In  storing  cement,  throw  wooden  blocks  on  the  floor.  Place  boards  over 
them  and  pile  the  cement  on  the  boards,  covering  the  pile  with  a  canvas  or  a 
piece  of  roofing  paper.  Never,  under  any  circumstance,  keep  cement  on  the  bare 
ground,  or  pile  it  directly  against  the  outside  walls  of  buildings. 

Sand 

Do  not  use  very  fine  sand.  If  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  fine  sand  handy, 
obtain  a  coarse  sand  and  mix  the  two  sands  together  in  equal  parts;  this  mixture 
is  as  good  as  coarse  sand  alone. 

Sometimes  fine  sand  must  be  used,  because  no  other  can  be  obtained;  but  in 
such  an  event  an  additional  amount  of  cement  must  be  used — sometimes  as  much 
as  double  the  amount  ordinarily  required.  For  example,  in  such  a  case,  instead 
of  using  a  concrete  I  part  cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  4  parts  stone,  use  a  concrete 
I  part  cement,  I  part  sand,  and  2  parts  stone. 

Besides  being  coarse,  the  sand  should  be  clean,  i.  e.,  free  from  vegetable  matter. 
"But,"  you  say,  "how  shall  I  tell  whether  the  sand  is  what  you  call  clean?" 


The  presence  of  dirt  in  the  sand  is  easily  ascertained  by  rubbing  a  little  in 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  If  a  little  is  emptied  into  a  pail  of  water,  the  presence  of  dirt 
will  be  shown  by  the  discoloration  of  the  water.  This  can  be  discovered  also  by 
filling  a  fruit  jar  to  the  depth  of  4  inches  with  sand  and  then  adding  water  until 
it  is  within  an  inch  of  the  top.  After  the  jar  has  been  well  shaken,  the  contents 
should  be  allowed  to  settle  for  a  couple  of  hours.  The  sand  will  sink  to  the  bottom, 
but  the  mud,  which  can  be  easily  recognized  by  its  color,  will  form  a  distinct  layer 
on  top  of  the  sand,  and  above  both  will  be  a  clear  depth  of  water.  If  the  layer  of 
mud  is  more  than  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  the  sand  should  not  be  used  unless 
it  is  first  washed. 

Having  discovered  that  the  sand  you  contemplate  using  is  not  clean,  and  pro- 
vided you  cannot  readily  obtain  any  that  is  clean,  you  may  use  what  you  have, 
provided  you  wash  it  in  the  following  manner: — 

Build  a  loose  board  platform  from  10  to  15  feet  long,  with  one  end  a  foot 
higher  than  the  other.  On  the  lower  end  and  on  the  sides,  nail  a  board  2  by  6 
inches  on  edge,  to  hold  the  sand.  Spread  the  sand  over  this  platform  in  a  layer 
three  or  four  inches  thick,  and  wash  it  with  a  hose.  The  washing  should  be  started 
at  the  high  end,  and  the  water  allowed  to  run  through  the  sand  and  over  the  2  by 
6-inch  piece  at  the  bottom.  A  small  quantity  of  clay  or  loam  does  not  injure  the 
sand,  but  any  amount  over  5  per  cent.  does. 


Stone  or  Gravel 

This  is  known  as  the  "coarse  aggregate"  of  concrete.  Great  care  should  be 
used  in  its  selection.  The  pebbles  should  be  closely  inspected  to  see  that  there  is 
no  clay  on  their  surface.  A  layer  of  such  clay  prevents  the  "binding"  of  the 
cement.  If  necessary  stone  or  gravel  may  be  washed  in  the  same  way  as  above 
described  for  sand.  Indeed,  it  is  more  easily  done  than  sand,  as  the  water  flows 
through  the  larger  voids  in  the  gravel  more  readily  than  through  the  voids  in  the 
sand.  Dust  may  be  left  in  the  crushed  stone  without  fear  of  its  interfering  with 
the  strength  of  the  cement,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  such  dust  is  dis- 
tributed evenly  through  the  whole  mass,  and  when  dust  is  found  in  stone,  slightly 
less  sand  should  be  used  than  ordinarily. 

As  to  the  size  of  stone  or  gravel,  this  must  be  determined  by  the  form  of 
construction  contemplated.  For  foundations  or  any  large  thick  structure,  use 
anything  from  Y^  to  2^  inches  in  diameter.  For  thin  walls  use  ^  to  i-inch 
stone. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  sizes  graded  from  small 
to  large.  By  this  means  the  spaces  or  voids  between  the  stones  or  pebbles  are 
reduced  and  a  more  compact  concrete  is  obtained.  Moreover,  this  method  makes 
it  possible  to  get  along  with  less  sand  and  less  cement. 


Pure  Water  Necessary  in  Mixing 

Water  for  concrete  should  be  clean  and  free  from  strong  acids  and  alkalies. 
It  may  be  readily  stored  in  a  barrel  beside  the  mixing  board  and  placed  on  the 
concrete  with  a  bucket.  If  you  are  at  all  in  doubt  about  the  purity  of  the  water 
that  you  contemplate  using,  it  would  be  well  to  make  up  a  block  of  concrete  as  a 
test,  and  see  whether  the  cement  "sets"  properly. 


10 


Proportioning  the  Mixture 

That  mixture  in  which  all  the  spaces  (called  "voids")  between  the  stone  or 
gravel  are  filled  with  sand,  and  all  the  spaces  between  the  sand  are  filled  with 
cement,  is  the  ideal  mixture.  This  mixture  is  rarely  attained,  as  the  voids  in 
each  load,  of  gravel  and  sand  vary  slightly,  and  in  order  to  be  absolutely  safe,  it 
is  well  to  use  a  little  more  cement  than  will  just  fill  the  voids. 


Fig.  i. — Quantities  of  cement,  sand,  and  gravel  in  I  :  2  :  4  concrete  mixture,  which 
means  I  part  cement,  2  parts  sand,  4  parts  crushed  stone  or  gravel,  and  the  resulting 
quantity  of  concrete,  which  is  only  slightly  greater  in  size  than  the  gravel,  the  sand 
and  cement  filling  the  voids  in  the  gravel. 


TABLE  I. 

SHOWING  THE  QUANTITIES  OF  MATERIALS  AND  THE  RESULTING  AMOUNT  OF  CON- 
CRETE FOR  TWO-BAG  BATCH. 


PROPORTIONS  BY  PARTS. 

TWO-BAG  BATCH. 

KIND  OF  CON- 
CRETE MIX- 
TURE. 

Ce- 
ment. 

Sand. 

Stone 
or 
Gravel. 

Materials. 

Con- 
crete. 

Size  of  Measur- 
ing Boxes. 
Inside  Measure- 
ments. 

Water 
in  Gal- 
lons for 
Medium 
Wet 
Mix- 
ture. 

Ce- 
ment. 

Sand. 

Stone 
or 
Gravel. 

Sand. 

Stone  or 
Gravel. 

Bags. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Gallons. 

1:2:   4  Con- 

crete .... 

I 

2 

4 

2 

3% 

7l/2 

8^ 

2'X2' 

2'X4' 

10 

I    :    234   :    5 

1 

1 

Concrete  . 

I 

2H 

5 

2 

M 

91/2 

10 

2'l*X? 

2'  x/5' 

t»H 

As  above  explained,  concrete  is  composed  of  a  certain  amount  of  cement,  a 
larger  amount  of  sand,  and  a  still  larger  amount  of  stone  (or  gravel).  To  determine 
how  much  of  each  of  these  materials  to  use,  we  must  first  consider  the  type  of  work 
we  wish  to  undertake.  For  ordinary  work  about  the  farm  (silos,  tanks,  cisterns, 
fence  posts,  well  curbs,  etc.,  etc.)  use  twice  as  much  stone  as  sand,  and  twice  as 
much  sand  as  cement.  This  is  called  a  i  12:4  mixture — meaning  that  there  are 
in  that  mixture: 

1  part  of  cement, 

2  parts  of  sand, 

4  parts  of  stone  or  gravel. 


11 


For  sidewalks,  gutters,  etc.,  a  "weaker"  mixture  is  sometimes  used,  consist- 
ing of: 

1  part  of  cement, 
2^  parts  of  sand, 

5  parts  of  stone  or  gravel. 

The  proportions  should  always  be  measured  by  volume,  and  the  best  way  to 
do  the  measuring  is  by  the  use  of  a  home-made  "measuring  box,"  of  any  kind  of 
rough  boards  having  straight  sides,  but  with  no  top  or  bottom.  The  size  of  these 
measuring  boxes  is  determined  by  the  proportion  desired  for  your  mixture.  For 
such  boxes  you  need  the  following  sized  lumber: 

4  pieces  i  inch  by  nj^  inches  by  2  feet  rough  (ends  of  sand  and  stone  boxes). 

2  pieces  I  inch  by  nl/2  inches  by  4  feet  rough  (sides  of  sand  box). 
2  pieces  i  inch  by  nl/2  inches  by  6  feet  rough  (sides  of  stone  box). 

Note :  The  two  pieces  4  feet  long  and  the  two  pieces  6  feet  long  have  an  extra 
foot  in  length  at  each  end  to  be  made  into  a  handle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

For  a  i  :  2^  :  5  mixture,  you  require  the  following  sized  lumber: 
4  pieces  i  inch  by  \\Y^  inches  by  2  feet  (ends  of  sand  and  stone  boxes). 
2  pieces  i  inch  by  11^2  inches  by  4  feet  6  inches  (sides  of  sand  box). 
2  pieces  i  inch  by  11^/2  inches  by  7  feet  (sides  of  stone  box). 

Note :  The  two  pieces  4  feet  6  inches  long  and  the  two  pieces  7  feet  long  have 
an  extra  foot  in  length  at  each  end  to  be  made  into  a  handle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  measuring  box,  let  us  once  more  assume  that  a 
I  :  2  :  4  mixture  is  required,  and  that  the  amount  of  finished  concrete  needed  is 
8^  cubic  feet.  By  referring  to  table  on  page  1 1  it  will  be  noted  that  two  bags  of 
cement  are  required,  also  3%  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  7^  cubic  feet  of  stone  or  gravel. 
Under  "size  of  measuring  box"  it  is  found  that  the  sand  should  just  fill  a  box  2  feet 
by  2  feet  by  n^  inches,  and  that  the  stone  should  fill  a  box  2  feet  by  4  feet  by 
n^/2  inches.  Lay  the  sand  box,  or  frame,  on  the  mixing  platform  and  fill  it. 
Then  raise  the  box.  Empty  two  bags  of  cement  on  the  sand  and  mix  as  described 
under  "Mixing,"  see  pages  14-22.  Even  off  the  mixture  thus  obtained  with  your 
shovel,  place  the  stone  measuring  box  on  top  of  the  mixture  and  fill  it.  Raise  the 
measuring  box — and  you  have  the  correct  amount  of  stone  all  ready  to  be  mixed 
with  the  cement  and  sand.  It  is  important  to  measure  both  the  sand  and  stone 
loose  in  the  box — never  "pack"  them. 

For  purposes  of  explanation,  size  of  mixture  will  be  referred  to  as  a  "batch" 
of  so  many  bags  of  cement.  Thus,  a  "  two-bag  batch  of  concrete"  would  mean  one 
requiring  two  bags  of  cement,  with  the  sand  and  stone  proportioned  accordingly, 
as  shown  above. 

For  a  "four-bag  batch  of  concrete"  it  would  be  necessary  to  multiply  the 
amount  of  stone  and  gravel  by  2,  also  multiplying  the  cubic  contents  of  the  measur- 
ing box  by  2,  and  using  four  bags  of  cement  instead  of  two. 

The  table  previously  referred  to  also  shows  the  amount  of  water  for  different 
sized  batches,  but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  quantity  of  this  ingredient  is  only 
approximated.  Use  the  amount  indicated  in  the  table  for  the  first  batch,  and  if  it 
proves  too  wet  for  the  use  desired,  reduce  the  amount  of  water;  if  too  dry,  increase 
the  amount  of  water.  Always  use  a  bucket  in  measuring  the  amount  of  water, 
as  this  secures  uniform  results. 


12 


Natural  Mixture  of  Bank  Sand  and  Gravel 

Naturally  mixed  bank  sand  and  gravel  are  sometimes  found  in  the  right  pro- 
portions for  making  concrete.  Generally,  however,  there  is  far  too  much  sand 
for  the  gravel,  and  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  using  this  class  of  material. 
Unless  the  mixture  runs  very  even  throughout  the  bank,  and  is  found  to  be  made 
up  of  one  part  sand  to  two  parts  gravel,  it  is  better  to  screen  the  sand  out  of  the 
gravel  and  prepare  the  materials  in  the  usual  way. 

Herewith  is  a  table  showing  the  quantities  for  a  natural  mixture  of  bank 
sand  and  gravel.  The  quantities  can  be  found  in  the  same  way  as  in  Table  I, 
on  page  1 1 . 


TABLE  II. 

SHOWING  THE  QUANTITIES  OF  MATERIALS  AND  THE  RESULTING  AMOUNT  OF  CON- 
CRETE FOR  TWO-BAG  BATCH,  USING  NATURAL  MIXTURE  OF  BANK  SAND 
AND  GRAVEL. 


KIND  OF  CONCRETE  MIXTURE. 

PROPOR- 
TIONS BY 
PARTS. 

TWO-BAG  BATCH  FOR  NATURAL  MIXTURE  OF 
BANK  SAND  AND  GRAVEL. 

Cement. 

Natural  Mixture 
of  Sand  and  Gravel. 

Materials. 

U 

Size  of  Measuring 
Boxes. 

1£ 

2& 

1 

Natural  Mix- 
ture of  Sand 
and  Gravel. 

Mixture  of  Sand 
and  Gravel. 

Water  in  Ga 
for  Medium 
Mixture. 

I  '  2  °  4  Concrete 

I 
I 

4 
5 

Bags. 
2 
2 

Cu.  ft. 

11 

Cu.  ft. 
8* 

10 

2'x4'xni" 

2'xs'xnr 

Gallons 
10 
12^ 

j  •  2  V£  '  5  Concrete        

There  are  three  kinds  of  mixtures,  in  general,  on  concrete  work: — • 

ist. — Very  Wet  Mixture. — Concrete  wet  enough  to  be  mushy  and  run  off  the 
shovel  when  handling,  used  for  thin  walls  or  for  thin  sections,  etc. 

2d. — Medium  Mixture. — Concrete  just  wet  enough  to  make  it  jelly-like, 
used  for  foundations,  floors,  etc.  To  better  describe  this  mixture  it  may  be  said 
that  a  man  should  sink  ankle  deep  if  he  were  to  step  on  top  of  the  pile. 

3d. — Dry  Mixture. — Concrete  like  damp  earth,  used  for  foundations,  etc., 
where  it  is  important  to  have  the  concrete  "set"  up  as  quickly  as  possible. 

The  difference  between  the  mixtures  is,  that  the  dryer  the  mixture  the  quicker 
will  the  concrete  "  set  up  " — but  in  the  long  run,  when  carefully  mixed  and  "  placed," 
the  results  from  any  of  the  above  mixtures  will  be  identical.  It  may  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  a  dry  mixture  is  the  harder  to  handle,  must  be  protected  with  greater 
care  from  the  sun  or  from  drying  too  quickly;  and  lastly,  is  likely — unless  used  by 
most  experienced  hands — to  show  voids  or  stone  pockets  in  the  face  of  the  work 
when  the  "Forms"  are  removed.  The  less  the  voids  in  the  stone  or  gravel,  the 
greater  will  be  the  volume  of  the  concrete.  In  general,  the  amount  of  concrete 
will  be  greater  in  each  instance  than  is  shown  in  the  table — especially  when  gravel 
is  used. 


13 


14 


Tools 

One  great  advantage  of  concrete,  so  far  as  the  farmer  is  concerned,  lies  in  the 
fact  that,  generally  speaking,  it  necessitates  no  outlay  for  tools,  for  it  so  happens 
that  most  of  the  tools  needed  for  forms  of  concrete  construction  are  the  very 
ones  every  farmer  uses — 

Shovels — One  for  each  man  on  the  job. 

Wheelbarrows — At  least  two,  preferably  those  with  sheet  iron  bodies. 

Rake. 

Water  Barrel. 

Several  Water  Buckets. 

A  Tamper  or  Rammer — This  is  made  of  wood  with  handles  nailed  to  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  measurement  is  4  inches  by  2  inches  by  2  feet  6  inches. 

A  Garden  Spade. 

A  Sand  Screen,  made  by  nailing  a  piece  of  %-'mch  mesh  wire  screen,  2^ 
feet  by  5  feet  in  size,  to  a  frame  made  of  2-inch  by  4-inch  scantling. 

In  addition  to  the  above  tools  you  will  require  a  Mixing  Board.  This  is 
simply  a  water-tight  platform.  It  should  be  (for  a  two  batch  mixture  and  for  two 
men  to  work  on)  about  10  feet  square.  Make  it  out  of  i-inch  boards  10  feet  long, 
surfaced  on  one  side,  using  5  cleats  to  hold  the  boards  together.  The  cleats  should 
measure  2  inches  by  4  inches  by  9  feet.  If  i-inch  by  6-inch  tongued  and  grooved 
roofers  can  be  obtained,  these  will  answer  very  nicely,  provided  they  are  fairly 
free  from  knots.  The  object  of  having  surfaced  boards  is  to  make  the  shoveling 
or  turning  easy.  The  boards  should  be  so  laid  as  to  enable  the  shoveling  to  be 
done  with  and  not  against  the  cracks  between  the  boards.  The  boards  must  be 
drawn  up  close  in  nailing,  so  that  no  cement  "grout"  will  run  through  while 
mixing. 

.  For  a  larger  job,  a  slightly  larger  mixing  board  will  be  needed. 

In  setting  up  your  mixing  board,  choose  a  place  giving  plenty  of  room  near 
the  storage  piles  of  sand  and  stone.  Block  up  your  concrete  board  level,  so  that 
the  cement  grout  will  not  run  off  on  one  side,  and  so  that  the  board  will  not  sag 
in  the  middle  under  the  weight  of  the  concrete. 

Wheelbarrow  "Runs" 

You  will  also  have  to  make  wheelbarrow  "runs"  leading  from  your  mixing 
board  to  the  spot  where  the  concrete  is  to  be  placed.  Do  not  use,  for  these  runs, 
any  old  boards  that  are  handy.  Make  a  good  run — smooth,  and,  if  much  above 
the  ground,  at  least  20  inches  wide.  This  one  feature  will  lighten  and  quicken 
the  work  to  a  remarkable  extent. 


How  to  Mix  Concrete 

Having  selected  the  proper  materials  and  arranged  the  mixing  board  and 
runs,  the  next  step  is  the  actual  process  of  mixing. 

The  proportions  of  materials  and  the  nature  of  same  for  various  types  of  work 
have  already  been  described  on  pages  11-13.  In  following  the  mixing  instruc- 
tions here  given,  considerable  assistance  will  be  obtained  by  referring  to  the 
illustrations  with  which  instructions  are  interspersed. 


15 


Fig.  3. — Lifting  off  the  Sand  Measuring  Box  and  Getting  Cement  Ready. 


Fig.  4. — Spreading  the  Cement  Over  the  Sand. 


16 


The  Hand  Mixing  Method 

There  are  many  ways  of  "hand  mixing,"  all  having  the  same  good  results. 
The  way  described  here  we  believe  to  be  the  one  best  calculated  to  obtain  good 
results  with  a  minimum  of  labor.  In  this  description,  and  the  accompanying 
illustrations,  we  have  taken  as  a  basis  a  "Two-Bag  Batch"  of  1 : 2  14  concrete. 

First  load  your  sand  in  wheelbarrows  from  the  sand  pile,  wheel  on  to  the 
"Board,"  and  fill  the  sand-measuring  box,  which  is  placed  about  two  feet  from 
one  of  the  lo-foot  sides  of  the  board,  as  shown  by  the  diagram  in  Fig.  3.  When 
the  sand  box  is  filled,  lift  it  off  and  spread  the  sand  over  the  board  in  a  layer  3 
or  4  inches  thick,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Take  the  two  bags  of  cement  and  place 
the  contents  as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  sand  (see  Fig.  4).  With  the  two 
men  at  points  marked  "x"  and  "xx"  on  the  sketch  below  Fig.  4,  start  mixing 
the  sand  and  cement,  each  man  turning  over  the  half  on  his  side  of  the  line  AA. 
Starting  at  his  feet  and  shoveling  away  from  him,  each  man  takes  a  full  shovel-load, 
turning  the  shovel  over  at  the  points  marked  I  and  2  respectively  in  Fig.  4.  In 
turning  the  shovel,  do  not  simply  dump  the  sand  and  cement  at  the  points  marked 
i  and  2  in  the  diagram  under  the  cut,  but  shake  the  materials  off  the  end  and  sides 
of  the  shovel,  so  that  the  sand  and  cement  are  mixed  as  they  fall.  This  is  a  great 
assistance  in  mixing  these  materials.  In  this  way  the  material  is  shoveled  from 
one  side  of  the  board  to  the  other,  as  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6.  Fig.  5  shows  the  first 
turning,  and  Fig.  6  the  second  turning. 

The  sand  and  cement  should  now  be  well  mixed  and  ready  for  the  stone  and 
water.  After  the  last  turning,  spread  the  sand  and  cement  out  carefully,  place 
the  gravel  or  stone  measuring  box  beside  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  fill  from  the 
gravel  pile.  Lift  off  the  box  and  shovel  the  gravel  on  top  of  the  sand  and  cement, 
spreading  it  as  evenly  as  possible.  With  some  experience,  equally  good  results 
can  be  obtained  by  placing  the  gravel  measuring  box  on  top  of  the  carefully  leveled 
sand  and  cement  mixture,  and  filling  it,  thus  placing  the  gravel  on  top  without  an 
extra  shoveling.  This  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  Add  about  three-fourths  the 
required  amount  of  water,  using  a  bucket  and  dashing  the  water  over  the  gravel 
on  top  of  the  pile  as  evenly  as  possible.  (See  Fig.  9.)  Be  careful  not  to  let  too 
much  water  get  near  the  edges  of  the  pile,  as  it  will  run  off,  taking  some  cement  with 
it.  This  caution,  however,  does  not  apply  to  a  properly  constructed  mixing  board, 
as  the  cement  and  water  cannot  get  away.  Starting  the  same  as  with  the  sand 
and  cement,  turn  the  materials  over  in  much  the  same  way,  except  that  instead  of 
shaking  the  materials  off  the  end  of  the  shovel,  the  whole  shovel  load  is  dumped 
as  at  points  I  or  2  in  the  diagram  under  Fig.  4  and  dragged  back  toward  the  mixer 
with  the  square  point  of  the  shovel.  This  mixes  the  gravel  with  the  sand  and 
cement,  the  wet  gravel  picking  up  the  sand  and  cement  as  it  rolls  over  when 
dragged  back  by  the  shovel.  (See  Fig.  10.)  Add  water  to  the  dry  spots  as  the 
mixing  goes  on  until  all  the  required  water  has  been  used.  Turn  the  mass  back 
again,  as  was  done  with  the  sand  and  cement.  With  experienced  laborers,  the 
concrete  should  be  well  mixed  after  three  such  turnings;  but  if  it  shows  streaky 
or  dry  spots,  it  must  be  turned  again.  After  the  final  turning,  shovel  into  a 
compact  pile.  The  concrete  is  now  ready  for  placing. 


17 


Fig.  5. — First  Turning,  Sand  and  Cement. 


Fig.  6. — Second  Turning,  Sand  and  Cement. 


18 


Fig.  7. — Filling  the  Stone  (or  Gravel)  Measuring  Box — First  Method. 


Fig.  8.— Filling  the  Stone  (or  Gravel)  Measuring  Box  When  on  Top  of  Mixed  Sand  and 

Cement — Second  Method. 


11) 


Fie   Q  —placing  the  Water  on  the  Stone  (or  Gravel)  which  is  on  Top  of  the  Mixed 

Sand  and  Cement. 


Mixing  Natural  Mixture  of  Bank  Sand  and  Gravel 

Spread  out  the  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel  as  much  as  the  board  will  readily 
permit,  add  enough  water  to  wet  the  gravel  and  sand  thoroughly,  spread  the 
cement  evenly  in  a  thin  layer  over  the  sand  and  gravel,  and  turn  over,  as  described 
previously,  at  least  three  times,  adding  the  rest  of  the  water  necessary  to  get  the 
required  consistency  while  the  materials  are  being  turned.  It  requires  some 
experience  to  work  up  a  natural  mixture  of  bank  sand  and  gravel,  and  if  at  all 
doubtful  about  the  concrete  made  from  it,  first  screen  the  sand  from  the  gravel, 
and  then  mix  in  the  regular  way. 


Fig.  io.— Mixing  the  Stone  (or  Gravel)  with  the  Sand  and  Cement. 


20 


Number  of  Men 

For  the  above  operation  only  two  men  are  required,  although  more  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  If  three  men  are  available,  let  two  of  them  mix  as  described 
above  and  the  third  man  supply  the  water,  help  mix  the  concrete  by  raking  over 
the  dry  or  unmixed  spots  as  the  two  mixers  turn  the  concrete,  help  load  the  wheel- 
barrows with  sand  and  stone  or  gravel,  etc.  Fig.  5  shows  a  third  man  on  the  board. 
In  this  illustration,  he  is  helping  mix  the  sand  and  cement  by  raking  it — a  most 
effective  practice. 

If  four  men  are  available,  it  is  best  to  increase  the  size  of  the  batch  mixed  to  a 
four-bag  batch,  doubling  the  quantities  of  all  materials  used.  The  cement  board 
should  also  be  increased  to  10  by  12  feet  as  shown  under  "Tools."  In  this 
case  start  the  mixing  in  the  middle  of  the  board,  and  each  pair  of  men  mixing  exactly 
as  if  for  a  two-bag  batch,  except  that  the  concrete  is  shoveled  into  one  big  mass 
each  time  it  is  turned  back  on  to  the  center  of  the  board.  When  more  than  four 
men  are  available,  the  rest  may  place  the  concrete,  make  new  runs,  load  wheel- 
barrows, etc.,  taking  the  concrete  away  from  the  board  as  fast  as  it  is  mixed.  In 
this  case  another  small  concrete  board  should  be  placed  next  to  the  big  "board," 
so  that  in  the  last  turning  the  batch  can  be  shoveled  over  on  to  the  small  board 
for  placing,  making  room  on  the  big  board  to  mix  the  next  batch.  The  small 
platform  need  be  only  just  big  enough  to  hold  the  pile  of  mixed  concrete. 


How  to  Determine  Quantities  of  Materials  Needed 

First  figure  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  concrete  that  will  be  required  for  the 
work  in  question.  Then  by  multiplying  this  number  by  the  number  under  the 
proper  column  and  required  mixture  shown  in  Table  III,  the  amounts  of  cement, 
sand,  and  stone  or  gravel  can  be  found. 


TABLE  III. 


QUANTITIES  OF  ! 

MATERIAL  IN  i  Cu. 

FT.  OF  CONCRETE 

MIXTURE 

Cement, 
Barrel 

Sand, 
Cu.  Yard 

Stone  or  Gravel, 
Cu.  Yard 

I  :  2       :  4  Concrete  

.0^8 

.016"; 

.0^26 

i  :  2^  :  5  Concrete  

.048 

.OI76 

.0^52 

Example 

Suppose  the  work  consists  of  a  concrete  silo  requiring  in  all  935  cubic  feet  of 
concrete,  of  which  750  cubic  feet  is  to  be  I  12:4  concrete,  and  185  cubic  feet  is  to 
be  i  :  2^  :  5  concrete.  Also  enough  sand  and  cement  is  needed  to  paint  the  silo 
inside  and  outside,  in  all  400  square  yards  of  surface,  with  a  i  :  I  mixture  of  sand 
and  cement.  One  cubic  foot  of  I  :  i  mortar  will  paint  about  15  square  yards  of 
surface  and  requires  0.1856  barrels  of  cement  and  0.0263  cubic  yards  of  sand. 


21 


Solution,  Etc. 

Thus  the  necessary  quantities  of  materials  are: — 

57Hi  barrels  of  Portland  cement. 

1 6%  cubic  yards  of  sand. 

31  cubic  yards  of  stone  or  gravel. 

It  is  always  wise  to  order  two  or  three  extra  barrels  of  cement,  if  the  dealer 
is  at  considerable  distance,  as  this  avoids  any  possible  trouble  that  a  shortage 
might  cause.  Besides,  any  cement  left  over  always  comes  in  handy  for  repair 
work  around  the  house  or  barn. 

Forms  for  Concrete 

Concrete  is  a  plastic  material  and  before  hardening,  takes  the  shape  of  any- 
thing against  which  or  in  which  it  is  placed. 

Naturally,  the  building  of  the  Form  is  a  most  important  item  in  the  success 
of  the  work. 

These  Forms  hold  the  concrete  in  place,  support  it  until  it  has  hardened  and 
give  it  its  shape,  as  well  as  its  original  surface  finish. 

Kinds  of  Forms 

Almost  any  material  which  will  hold  the  concrete  in  place  will  do  for  a  Form. 
Concrete  foundations  for  farm  buildings  require  shallow  trenches,  and  usually  the 
earth  walls  are  firm  enough  to  act  as  a  Form. 

Molds  of  wet  sand  are  used  for  ornamental  work.  Frequently  colored  sands 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  providing  both  the  finished  surface  and  color  to  the  con- 
crete ornament. 

Cast,  wrought  or  galvanized  iron  is  used,  where  an  extremely  smooth  finish 
is  desired,  without  further  treatment  upon  the  removal  of  the  Forms.  Forms 
made  of  iron  are  more  easily  cleaned,  and  can  be  used  a  greater  number  of  times 
than  those  of  wood.  Rusty  iron,  however,  should  not  be  used. 

By  far  the  greatest  number  of  Forms  are  made  of  wood,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  lumber  in  small  quantities  can  always  be  obtained. 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Form  \ 

Plan  your  Forms  so  there  will  be  no  difficult  measurements  to  understand. 
Make  as  few  pieces  of  lumber  do  the  work  as  you  can,  and  do  not  drive  the  Forms 
full  of  nails.  If  you  do  the  Forms  will  be  difficult  to  take  apart  without  splitting. 

Forms  must  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  weight  of  the  concrete  without  bulging 
out  of  shape.  When  they  bulge,  cracks  open  between  the  planks  and  the  water 
in  the  concrete,  with  some  cement  and  sand,  will  leak  out.  This  weakens  the 
concrete,  and  causes  hollows  in  the  surface  which  look  badly  after  the  Forms  are 
removed. 

Forms  which  lose  their  shape  after  being  used  once  can  hardly  be  used  a  second 
time.  A  part  of  the  erection  cost  of  Forms  is  saved  if  the  Forms  are  built  in  as 
large  a  section  as  is  convenient  to  handle.  This  saving  applies  to  their  removal, 
as  well  as  to  their  setting.  Consequently,  the  lightest  Forms  possible,  with  the 
largest  surface  area,  are  the  most  economical. 


22 


How  to  Plan  Forms 

The  first  consideration  in  planning  Forms  is  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be 
put.  Neglect  of  this  point  means  waste  of  money  and  time.  If  they  are  for  work 
afterward  to  be  covered  with  a  veneer  coat,  the  finish  of  the  surface  is  of  small 
consideration,  while  the  alignment 
of  the  Form  is  all-important. 

If  a  tank  or  retaining  wall 
is  to  be  built,  the  fact  that  the 
Forms  are  not  in  exact  alignment 
will  hardly  be  noticed. 

In  planning  Forms  for  large 
structures,  the  oftener  each  sec- 
tion is  used,  the  less  the  cost. 
You  save  money  if  they  are  rigid  in 
alignment,  and  well  surfaced.  In 
other  words,  if  you  count  on  using 
your  Forms  over  and  over  again, 
the  more  nearly  perfect  they  are, 
the  more  often  they  can  be  used, 
and  the  cheaper  they  become. 

If  Forms  are  to  be  used  only 
once,  as  is  generally  the  case 
on  the  farm,  they  should  not  be 
nailed  so  securely  as  to  prevent 
their  being  readily  taken  apart, 
and  the  lumber  used  for  some- 
thing else.  If  often  pays  to  put 
them  together  with  screws.  If 
nails  are  used,  do  not  drive  them 
home. 


Care  Needed  in  Selecting 
Lumber  for  Forms 

The  selection  of  lumber  is  of 
importance.  If  the  Forms  are  to 
be  used  over  many  times,  sur- 
faced lumber,  matched,  tongued, 
and  grooved  stuff,  free  from  loose 
knots,  is  an  economy.  If,  how- 
ever, they  are  to  be  used  only 
once,  almost  any  old  plank  will 
do.  By  nailing  a  board  on  the 
outside  of  the  cracks  or  over  the 
bad  knot,  and  filling  with  a  little  clay,  the  Form  is  made  tight. 

Green  lumber  is  preferable  to  kiln-dried  or  seasoned  stuff.  Seasoned  stuff, 
when  wet  (either  by  throwing  water  on  the  form  before  placing  the  concrete  or  by 
absorbing  the  water  from  the  concrete)  warps,  and  the  shape  and  tightness  of  the 
Form  are  damaged. 


Wiring  Forms  Prevents  Bulging. 


23 


Originally  only  surfaced  lumber  was  used  for  Forms,  dependence  being  placed 
on  it  for  giving  a  finish  to  the  work.  While  to-day  other  than  smooth  surfaces  for 
concrete  are  the  fashion,  surfaced  lumber  has  some  advantages.  The  Forms  fit 
together  better  and  are  easier  to  erect.  They  are  more  easily  cleaned.  They  are 
easier  to  remove.  All  these  items  reduce  the  cost  of  the  work.  The  saving  effected 
will  of  course  depend  on  the  difference  in  local  price  between  finished  and  rough 
lumber. 

How  to  Clean 

Particles  of  concrete  stick  to  the  Forms.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  give  the 
surface  next  the  concrete  a  coat  of  oil  or  soft  soap.  Linseed,  black  or  cylinder  oil 
may  be  used.  Never  use  kerosene. 

Before  erecting,  paint  the  Forms  with  the  oil  or  soap.  Then  carefully  protect 
them  from  dust  or  dirt  until  erected.  Upon  removal,  immediately  clean  off  all 
the  particles  of  concrete  sticking  to  the  surface.  A  short-handled  hoe  will  take 
off  the  worst,  while  a  wire  brush  is  most  effective  for  finishing.  Be  careful  not  to 
gouge  the  wood  in  cleaning,  as  it  will  spoil  the  surface  of  your  next  section  of  <k>n- 
crete.  It  will  not  be  found  necessary  to  repaint  after  each  time  of  use.  Watch 
the  surface  and  repaint  if  it  appears  dry  in  spots. 

If  chips  or  blocks  of  wood  fall  inside  the  Forms  while  erecting,  carefully  remove 
them.  The  space  inside  the  Forms  is  intended  for  the  concrete;  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  only  concrete  is  placed  there. 

The  necessity  of  Forms  presents  a  problem  calling  for  the  use  of  that  ingenuity 
for  which  the  farmer  is  justly  famed.  Forms  can  be  economically  placed  in  so 
many  ways  that  only  one  example  will  be  given.  A  foundation  Form  in  place  is 
shown  in  the  photograph.  Note  the  simple  and  easy  method  of  bracing.  Also 
note  how  lumber  is  saved  from  cutting  by  allowing  the  sides  to  project,  as  well  as  the 
studding. 

For  this  building,  18  by  24  feet,  trench  18  inches  wide  and  2  feet  deep — total 
cost  of  setting  forms  $4.00.  The  lumber  was  all  on  hand  and  can  be  used  again. 


24 


How  to  Place  Concrete 

No  time  should  elapse  between  the  "mixing"  and  the  "placing."  Directions 
for  placing  must  of  necessity  be  general,  and  the  farmer  must  use  his  own  judgment 
as  to  how  to  handle  this  part  of  the  concrete  work,  in  connection  with  whatever 
particular  job  he  has  on  hand.  The  important  thing  to  remember  is,  that  the 
materials  should  not  separate  in  placing. 

You  may  shovel  the  concrete  off  the  board  directly  into  the  work;  you  may 
shovel  it  into  wheelbarrows,  wheel  it  to  position  and  dump,  or  you  may  carry  it  to 
the  proper  place  by  buckets  and  hoisting  apparatus. 

Directions  for  Placing 

Ordinarily  speaking,  concrete 
should  be  deposited  in  layers  about 
6  inches  thick. 

After  placing  concrete  in  the 
Form,  it  should  be  "tamped"  lightly 
with  a  wooden  or  iron  tamper  (or 
rammer)  until  the  water  shows  on 
the  top  and  no  stones  are  left  uncov- 
ered by  mortar. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  smooth  face 
on  the  concrete,  the  mixture  should 
be  carefully  "  spaded"  immediately 
after  "placing" — on  the  side  next  to 
the  Form  where  the  finished  concrete 
will  be  exposed  to  view.  By  "spad- 
ing" is  meant  the  working  of  a  spade 
or  a  beveled  board  between  the  con- 
crete and  the  side  of  the  Form,  mov- 
ing it  to  and  fro,  and  up  and  down. 
This  forces  the  large  stones  away 
from  the  boarding,  or  Form,  and 
brings  a  coating  of  mortar  next  there- 
to, thus  making  the  face  of  the  work 
present  an  even,  smooth  appearance. 


The  Necessary  Tools 

On  certain  jobs — as,  for  instance, 
in  the  case  of  a  6-inch  silo  wall — a 

spade  cannot  very  well  be  used,  on  account  of  the  narrowness  of  the  concrete  sec- 
tion. In  this  event,  use  for  surfacing,  a  thin  wooden  paddle,  made  from  a 
board  I  inch  by  4  inches,  and  gradually  sharpened  to  a  chisel  edge  at  the  end. 
The  sharpening  should  be  on  one  side  only,  and  in  using  this  paddle  place  the 
flat  side  against  the  Form,  as  shown  in  illustration. 

When  the  mixture  is  a  dry  one,  great  care  must  be  used  in  this  "spading"  or 
surfacing,  in  order  to  obtain  uniform  results,  but  in  the  case  of  a  wet  mixture, 
spading  is  only  required  as  an  added  precaution  against  the  possibility  of  voids  in 
the  face  of  the  work,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  not  necessary  at  all. 


25 


Protection  of  Concrete  after  Placing 

Green  concrete  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun  until  after  it  has  been 
allowed  to  set  for  five  or  six  days.  Each  day  during  that  period  the  concrete  should 
be  wet  down  by  sprinkling  water  on  it,  both  in  the  morning  and  afternoon.  This 
is  done  so  that  the  concrete  on  the  outside  will  not  dry  out  much  faster  than  the 
concrete  in  the  center  of  the  mass,  and  should  be  carried  out  carefully,  especially 
during  the  hot  summer  months.  Old  canvas,  sheeting,  burlap,  etc.,  placed  so 
as  to  hang  an  inch  or  so  away  from  the  face  of  the  concrete  will  do  very  well  as 
a  protection.  Wet  this,  as  well  as  the  concrete.  Often  the  concrete  Forms  can  be 
left  in  place  a  week  or  ten  days ;  this  protects  the  concrete  during  the  setting-up 
period  and  the  above  precautions  are  then  unnecessary. 


Points  to  Remember 

It  may  be  well,  in  summing  up,  to  emphasize  the  following  points: — 

1st.  The  materials  must  be  perfectly  clean. 

2d.    The  mixing  must  be  in  proportions  carefully  determined. 

3d.  The  mixture  must  be  used  while  absolutely  fresh. 

Good  results  cannot  be  obtained  unless  you  use  a  good  cement,  nor  will  the 
work  be  at  its  best  unless  care  is  taken  in  the  selection  of  clean  sand  and  clean 
stone. 

Among  the  uninitiated,  there  is  an  all  too  prevalent  idea  that  anything  is 
good  enough  for  the  making  of  concrete.  Some  will  tell  you  that  sawdust,  shavings, 
mud,  clay,  etc.,  will  do  to  complete  the  mixture,  but  the  absurdity  of  this  notion 
will  very  soon  become  evident  to  anyone  who  neglects  the  precautions  which  have 
been  above  pointed  out. 


Reinforcement 

Principles  Involved 

Concrete  and  steel  render  valuable  assistance  to  each  other  in  the  support  of 
heavy  burdens.  On  a  solid  foundation,  loaded  from  above  and  thus  under  direct 
pressure,  a  concrete  column  will  withstand  the  strain  of  an  enormous  load.  A  mu|h 
smaller  load  so  placed  as  to  cause  stretching  or  bending  toward  one  side  of  the  same 
column  may  cause  it  to  snap  off,  for  concrete  is  strong,  but  brittle.  On  the  other 
hand,  steel  is  tough  and  elastic.  In  the  form  of  rods  or  wire,  steel  withstands 
massive  loads  that  tend  to  stretch  it,  and  thus  displays  a  kind  of  strength  directly 
opposite  to  that  of  the  plain  concrete  column.  In  modern  construction  these  two 
valuable  properties  of  concrete  and  steel  are  utilized  by  combining  them  in  what  is 
called  reinforced  concrete.  With  steel  properly  buried  in  the  concrete,  the  column 
withstands  not  only  the  load  which  might  otherwise  snap  it,  but  one  many  times 
larger,  and  even  though  it  is  applied  at  any  place  along  its  length 

Reinforcement,  therefore,  is  steel  in  the  form  of  rods,  bars  or  wires,  buried  in 
concrete  to  take  up  and  to  withstand  the  strains  which  tend  to  stretch  or  to  bend 
the  concrete.  A  concrete  fence  post  is  merely  a  small  concrete  column.  Rein- 
forced, it  easily  stands  the  strain  from  usage  in  a  fence  line. 


26 


The  value  of  reinforcing  concrete  posts  properly  may  readily  be  seen  in  the 
figure.  If  a  load  (L)  is  raised  so  that  its  weight  is  supported  on  one  side  by  a 
wooden  post,  the  post  will  bend.  The  fibre  in  the  wood  on  the  side  away  from  the 
load  may  be  tough  and  elastic  enough  to  prevent  the  post  from  breaking,  and  when 
released  the  post  will  spring  back  into  its  former  position.  In  the  third  figure  a 
No.  9  wire  (W)  is  fastened  securely  to  the  wooden  post  at  the  top  and  at  the  ground 
surface,  and  is  supported  along  its  length  by  the  struts  (S).  If  the  same  load  is 
applied,  the  post  will  not  bend,  because  the  wire  takes  up  the  bending  or  stretching 
strain.  This  is  precisely  the  case  with  the  reinforcement  in  a  concrete  post. 
Supported  along  its  length  by  the  concrete,  the  wire  (W)  or  steel  in  other  shapes 
takes  up  the  bending  or  stretching  strains.  Since  the  load  which  causes  bending 
or  stretching  may  come  from  any  direction,  concrete  posts  are  reinforced  on  every 
side;  otherwise  they  might  break  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  which 
the  wooden  post  bends  when  the  reinforcement  is  not  on  the  proper  side  of  the  post. 

In  the  effort  to  be  safe  it  is  a  common  fault  to  insert  more  reinforcement  than 
is  absolutely  necessary.  This  adds  needlessly  to  the  cost,  for  concrete  becomes 
stronger  as  it  grows  older. 

Kinds  of  Reinforcement 

With  regard  to  the  roughness  of  the  outside,  metallic  reinforcing  materials 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  smooth  and  corrugated  or  deformed.  The  general 
result  of  the  many  tests  carried  on  in  testing  laboratories  seems  to  indicate  that  in 
strength  of  bond,  if  the  concrete  is  sufficiently  rich  and  well  mixed,  smooth  surfaces 
gives  satisfactory  results.  Two  kinds  of  reinforcement  are  much  used — bars  and  wire. 

Bars. — Round  bars  three-sixteenths  or  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are 
the  size  and  kind  most  used  on  the  farm.  The  stock  on  hand  at  blacksmith  shops 
and  hardware  stores  is  generally  from  steel  that  stretches  too  easily  and  therefore 
is  not  the  best  for  reinforcement.  Companies  which  make  a  specialty  of  reinforcing 
materials  can  furnish  both  rods  and  bars  which  stretch  only  under  very  large  loads. 

Wire. — The  development  of  the  wire  fence  has  produced  a  material  well  suited 
for  reinforcing  purposes.  Of  equal  size,  such  wire  will  produce  a  stronger  reinforce- 
ment than  the  material  above  described.  In  order  to  obtain  straight  wire  of  the 
necessary  length,  the  coils  ordinarily  placed  on  the  market  should  not  be  straight- 
ened out.  Straight  wire  can  be  obtained  from  dealers  in  the  same  manner  as  baling 
wire ;  that  is,  either  single  or  twisted  into  two  or  three-ply  cables,  and  of  the  length  de- 
sired. The  plain,  ungalvanized  fencing  wire  is  the  proper  kind,  for  galvanization  adds 
nothing  to  the  strength,  and  the  metal  will  not  rust  when  incased  in  the  concrete. 


27 


Concrete  Sidewalks  and  Floors 

Concrete  floors  are  nothing  more  than  sidewalks  of  large  size,  and  are  formed 
by  casting  slabs  in  place. 

The  description  given  is  an  economical  and  practical  method  of  laying  side- 
walks or  floors,  easily  adapted  to  any  use  where  concrete  is  found  advantageous. 
This  description  will  therefore  apply  not  only  to  the  building  of  sidewalks,  but  to 
all  flat  surfaces  of  concrete  resting  on  the  ground. 

Lasting  Qualities 

Concrete  floors  must  remain  hard  and  in  position  to  be  permanent.  To 
accomplish  this,  good  materials  must  be  used,  and  proper  methods  of  mixing  and 
placing  must  be  followed.  Only  in  this  way  can  settlement  cracks,  upheaval  by 
frost  or  roots  of  trees,  contraction  cracks,  crumbling,  and  general  failure  be  avoided. 

Settlement  Cracks 

To  avoid  settlement  cracks,  thoroughly  ram  the  ground  after  excavating  for 
the  foundation.  This  gives  a  solid  bearing  to  the  concrete  slab. 

Upheaval  by  Frost 

To  prevent  upheaval  by  frost  a  foundation  formed  of  crushed  stone,  hard 
furnace  cinders,  brick  bats  broken  to  about  a  2-inch  size,  broken  tile  or  any  other 
hard  porous  material,  should  be  laid  in  such  a  way  as  to  obtain  perfect  drainage. 
Never  use  ashes. 

If  freezing  occurs,  room  is  in  this  way  provided  between  the  pieces  of  stone  for 
the  expansion  of  the  ice. 

If  this  foundation  is  placed  in  clay  soil,  side  outlets  or  blind  drains  of  tile 


28 


should  be  provided  at  points  along  the  walk  where  they  are  necessary,  leading  into 
holes  filled  with  cinders  or  crushed  stone,  which  will  allow  the  surrounding  earth  to 
soak  up  the  accumulated  water.  Clay  soil  holds  the  water  collected  in  the  drainage 
foundation,  and  if  it  becomes  entirely  full  of  water,  the  ice  formed  during  freezing 
weather  will  upheave  the  walk. 

Upheaval  by  Tree  Roots 

Upheaval  by  tree  roots  can  be  easily  avoided  by  cutting  out  all  roots  which 
run  under  the  pavement  at  a  less  depth  than  18  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Contraction  Cracks 

Cement  concrete  expands  and  contracts  by  changes  of  temperature  in  the 
same  way  as  steel.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  cut  joints  which  will  allow  for 
this  expansion  and  contraction.  The  concrete  must  be  cut  entirely  through  to  the 
bottom  of  the  slab  with  a  trowel,  cleaver  or  other  instrument,  the  joint  formed 
being  from  >£  to  %  of  an  inch  wide.  Blocks  formed  in  this  way  should  not  be 
greater  than  6  feet  square  (36  square  feet). 

Scaling  or  Crumbling  of  the  Surface 

The  principal  causes  of  scaling  or  crumbling  surfaces  are  improper  mixing, 
drying  out  before  the  cement  has  thoroughly  hardened  and  the  use  of  bad  materials. 

Cement  needs  water  not  only  when  mixed,  but  after  being  placed  and  tamped, 
and  until  it  has  entirely  hardened.  If  concrete  is  not  kept  continually  wet  until 
hard,  it  is  weakened,  and  the  surface  of  such  a  walk  scales  or  becomes  soft  and 
chalky. 

Specifications 

DRAINAGE  FOUNDATION 

Stake  out  the  lines  of  the  walk,  or  dimensions  of  the  floor.  Excavate  to  a 
depth  of  1 6  inches,  ram  and  tamp  the  ground  thoroughly  and  evenly  and  fill  in 
12  inches  with  clean  large  cinders,  broken  stone,  pebbles,  brick  bats,  broken  tile 
or  other  material  selected.  Place  in  position  wooden  forms  made  of  2  by  4's,  these 
2  by  4's  to  be  set  on  edge  and  held  in  position  by  stakes  firmly  driven  in  the 
ground,  the  top  edge  to  be  located  so  as  to  accurately  outline  the  established  grade 
or  slope  of  the  walk  or  floor. 

A  walk  should  be  higher  in  the  center,  or  at  one  edge,  to  insure  the  water  run- 
ning off.  This  slope  should  be  ^  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

SELECTION  OF  MATERIALS 

Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  selection  of  the  materials  and  their 
mixing. 

The  concrete  should  be  composed  of  gravel  or  crushed  stone  all  of  which  will 
pass  through  a  %-inch  mesh  screen,  and  be  collected  on  a  %-'mch  mesh;  sand,  free 
from  loam  and  preferably  coarse,  and  a  grade  of  Portland  cement  guaranteed  to 
meet  all  the  requirements  of  the  Standard  Specifications  as  adopted  by  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials  and  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

PROPORTIONS 

The  strength  of  the  slab  is  not  always  governed  by  its  thickness.  The  greater 
strength  is  obtained  by  properly  proportioning  the  gravel  or  crushed  stone,  sand 


29 


and  Portland  cement,  so  that  all  the  spaces  between  the  stone  are  filled  with  s£|nd 
and  cement. 

The  Portland  cement,  sand  and  gravel  or  crushed  stone  should  be  mixed  in 
proportions,  if  the  sand  is  not  very  coarse,  of  I  :  2  :  4 — which  means,  I  part  Portland 
cement,  2  parts  sand,  4  parts  gravel  or  crushed  stone,  all  passing  a  %-inch  mesh 
and  all  collected  on  a  J^-inch  mesh.  If  the  sand  is  coarse  and  the  crushed  stone 
or  gravel  well  graded  in  size  of  particles,  it  may  be  mixed  in  proportions  of  i  part 
Portland  cement,  2^  parts  sand,  5  parts  gravel  or  broken  stone.  All  proportions 
are  measured  by  volume. 

Bank  run  gravel  is  often  used  for  sidewalk  work,  particularly  where 
a  good  bank  can  be  found  on  the  farm.  It  is  safer,  if  this  material  be  used, 
to  screen  out  the  pebbles,  using  them  as  stone,  measuring  the  quantities 
of  stone  and  sand  as  described  above.  Concrete  should  not  be  laid  in  freezing 
weather. 


30 


CONSISTENCY  OF  CONCRETE 

Mix  the  concrete  as  described  on  page  15  to  a  consistency  that  when  tamped, 
it  will  not  quake,  but  it  should  be  sufficiently  wet  so  that  some  moisture  will  rise  to 
the  surface  under  tamping. 

PLACING 

Divide  the  walk  by  setting  forms  at  right  angles  to  the  side  forms.  The  cross 
forms  can  be  made  of  2  by  4*5.  These  provide  for  expansion  and  contraction  joints. 
Hold  these  forms  in  place  by  driving  stakes  through  the  foundation  into  the  ground 
on  the  opposite  side  from  where  the  concrete  is  to  be  placed.  Spread  the  concrete 
over  the  drainage  foundation  to  the  thickness  of  the  walk  or  floor,  and  in  slabs 
not  over  6  feet  square.  The  thickness  of  a  walk  should  be  4  inches,  a  driveway  6 
inches,  a  floor  over  which  a  wagon  may  be  driven  6  inches,  and  all  other  floors  4 
inches. 

Fill  in  every  other  slab,  placing  enough  forms  to  use  up  all  the  concrete  mixed  in 
one  batch.  No  batch  should  stand  longer  than  one  half  hour  before  being  placed. 

Tamp  the  concrete  thoroughly.  Use  a  template,  with  ends  resting  on  the 
side  forms,  and  cut  to  a  curve  tc  give  the  walk  the  necessary  crown.  The  concrete 


31 


should  be  tamped  so  as  to  conform  to  the  curve  of  the  template.  If  one  edge  of 
the  walk  is  made  higher  than  the  other,  use  a  straight  edge  resting  on  the  side 
forms.  Tamp  the  concrete  to  conform  to  the  straight  edge. 

Mix  another  batch  of  concrete,  remove  the  cross  forms  and  place  the  concrete 
between  each  slab,  forming  a  continuous  walk.  Use  the  template  or  straight  edge 
and  tamp  as  before.  Immediately  after  placing  the  closing  slab,  work  a  straight 
trowel  or  knife  down  through  the  entire  depth  of  the  concrete  between  each  slab, 
thus  insuring  a  perfect  contraction  joint.  Smooth  the  surface  with  a  wooden  float. 


A  neat  appearance  may  be  given  the  contraction  joints  by  running  a  jointer 
along  the  top,  thus  smoothing  the  edges.  Do  this  before  the  concrete  gets  too  hard. 
The  sides  of  the  walk  may  be  smoothed  in  the  same  way  by  use  of  an  edger. 

When  the  concrete  is  nearly  hard  go  over  the  surface  with  a  piece  of  oakum 
or  a  stiff  brush,  removing  the  marks  of  the  float  and  giving  a  good  even  wearing 


33 


surface  which  will  not  be  slippery.  In  using  oakum  or  a  brush  be  careful  not  to 
remove  the  larger  pieces  of  stone.  If  surfacing  in  this  manner  disturbs  the 
particles  of  stone  and  roughens  the  walk  to  too  great  an  extent,  allow  the  walk  to 
harden  a  little  more  before  finishing  in  this  way.  At  the  end  of  each  day's  work 
see  that  the  last  slab  is  entirely  filled  and  finished. 

All  interior  floors,  such  as  floors  of  cellar,  barns  and  stables  require  no  con- 
traction joints.  They  are  made  by  laying  a  solid  continuous  sheet  of  concrete. 
All  outside  floors  should  have  contraction  joints  forming  slabs  not  over  6  feet 
square.  These  are  provided  the  same  as  in  sidewalks.  A  feeding  floor  is  formed 
merely  by  sidewalk  pavements  set  side  by  side.  Instead  of  using  a  template  for 
crowning  the  surface,  use  a  straight  edge,  each  end  resting  on  the  extreme  outside 
forms  to  give  a  slope  to  the  feeding  floor.  Contraction  joints  for  exterior  floors 
are  formed  in  the  same  way  as  for  sidewalks.  The  concrete  is  also  placed  in  alter- 
nate slabs  and  finished  in  the  same  way  as  sidewalks.  When  completed  the  walk  or 
floor  must  be  continuously  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  from  the  wind 
for  at  least  three  days,  so  that  it  will  not  dry  out  at  any  time.  This  can  be  easily 
done  by  covering  the  concrete  when  it  is  hard  with  hay,  straw,  or  old  carpet.  This 
covering  should  be  thoroughly  soaked  with  water,  and  kept  wet  for  three  or  four 
days  or  longer  if  economy  will  permit. 

While  the  walk  or  floor  is  hardening  it  should  be  so  protected  as  to  prevent 
persons  or  animals  from  disfiguring  the  surface  by  walking  on  it. 


_v 


A  Foundation  Gutter  and  Walk 

Foundation  gutters  catch  the  water  from  off  the  rain-beaten  side  of  the 
building,  quickly  carry  it  away,  and,  by  preventing  "seepage,"  keep  the  cellar, 
basement,  or  ground-floor  dry.  In  sloppy,  muddy  weather,  they  also  serve  as 
convenient  walks  around  the  out-buildings.  » 

Determine  the  grading  or  sloping  of  the  gutter  bottom  from  observation  of 
direction  of  the  flow  of  surface 
water  during  rain  storms,  or  from 
local  conditions,  such  as  location 
of  outlet  into  underground  drain. 
Excavate  a  trench  I  foot  6  inches 
in  width,  10  inches  deep  on  each 
side,  and  hollowed  out  to  13  inches 
deep  in  the  middle.  Use  a  straight 
edge  or  a  grade  cord,  together 
with  a  spirit  level,  to  give  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  the  desired 
slope  or  "fall."  For  each  foot  of 
length  a  slope  of  one-eighth  inch 
will  be  sufficient. 

Clean  the  dirt  off  the  founda- 
tion wall  with  a  stiff  broom  or 
brush. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  trench  place  a  6-inch  foundation  of  well-' 'tamped" 
gravel,  brickbats  or  crushed  stone. 

Make  a  one-bag  batch  of  concrete  in  proportions,  I  :  2^  :  5.  Have  the  mix- 
ture just  wet  enough  to  tamp  well. 


35 


Place  a  4-inch  thickness  of  concrete  to  form  a  dish-shaped  gutter  3  inches 
deep  in  the  middle.  Every  five  feet,  make  an  expansion  joint  y&  of  an  inch 
wide  by  inserting  a  metal  strip  not  less  than  7  inches  wide  and  18  inches  long, 

or  by  cutting  a  joint  entirely 
through  the  concrete  with  a 
straight  spade.  Smooth  the 
surface  with  a  wooden  float. 

Materials  Required 

One  cubic  yard  crushed 
rock  or  screened  gravel;  ^ 
cubic  yard  sand ;  6  bags  of  Port- 
land cement,  for  a  5O-foot  sec- 
tion. 

Repairs  to  Farm 
Buildings 

Since  wood  always  fails  first 
at  the  ground,  the  use  of  concrete 
on  the  farm  has  developed  from 
the  ground  up.  After  a  farmer 
has  had  to  replace  several  sills 
or  blocks  of  wood,  he  begins 
to  look  about  him  for  a  new 
material  which  will  not  rot  or  will 
not  have  to  be  replaced.  Con- 
crete is  his  natural  selection. 


36 


Support  the  building  by  temporary  struts,  alongside  of  the  post  to  be  removed. 
Saw  off  post  entirely  above  rotten  part.  Dig  a  hole  directly  under  the  post  2 
feet  deep,  and  slightly  larger  than  the  post  itself.  Build  a  box  with  sides  only, 
with  the  same  inside  measurement  as  the  hole  already  dug.  The  box  must  be 
long  enough  to  reach  from  the  ground  to  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  of 
post. 

Fill  hole  with  concrete,  mixed  I  12:4.  Then  place  the  box  in  position,  and 
fill  it  with  concrete  until  the  bottom  of  the  sawed-off  post  is  embedded  about  ^ 
an  inch  in  the  mixture.  Leave  the  forms  in  place  for  one  week  and  after  two  weeks 
remove  the  struts  which  have  been  used  as  temporary  support  for  the  building. 
The  concrete  should  be  mixed 
fairly  wet,  and  churned  with  a 
stick  while  being  placed. 

The  bottom  of  the  foundation 
may  be  made  larger  than  the  top, 
by  simply  sloping  one  side  of 
the  box  form — giving  the  effect 
shown  in  the  photograph. 

Why  Concrete  Should  be 

Used  to  Repair  Farm 

Buildings 

Repairs  to  foundations  of  this 
kind  vary  greatly  in  size  and 
shape.  Concrete  is  the  only  mate- 
rial which  can  be  used  for  any 
purpose,  whether  large  or  small, 


37 


*-  :^ 


JBK 


without  first  having  to  be  cut  to  the  shape  and  size  desired.     Consequently  there 
is  no  cheaper  known  material  for  this  kind  of  work. 

Replacing  an  Entire  Foundation  with  Concrete 

The  work  can  be  done  by  the  farmer,  with  the  help  of  his  own  farm  labor,  at 
times  when  more  important  work  is  not  claiming  his  attention. 

Foundations  of  concrete  are  indestructible. 

At  necessary  points,  remove  a  few  stones  or  bricks,  as  the  case  may  be,  in- 
serting short  pieces  of  heavy  timber  to  wedge  or  jack  up  the  building.  Carefully 
raise  the  building,  by  this  means,  until  it  stands  free  of  all  foundations.  Remove 
all  the  old  stone  or  brick  foundation  to  be  replaced,  and  set  in  place  the  forms  for 
the  concrete. 

Small  buildings  can  usually  be  raised  high  enough  to  allow  working  room, 
whereby  the  form  may  be  filled  right  up  to  the  top  with  concrete.  The  mixture 
should  be  a  wet  one.  (Proportions,  I  :  2  :  4.) 

Where  buildings  are  too  cumbersome  to  be  raised  by  "jacking,"  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  give  head-room,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  make  the  foundations  3 
inches  wider  than  the  sill.  Carry  the  forms  to  the  desired  height  and  utilize  this 
extra  3  inches  of  width  for  placing  the  concrete  in  the  forms.  The  top  board  of 
the  forms  may  also  be  left  off  until  you  are  ready  to  place  the  last  of  the  concrete. 
In  this  case  the  last  batch  of  the  concrete  should  be  very  wet.  Tamp  the  concrete 
until  it  comes  up  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  sill,  to  the  entire  width  of  the  wall. 

Be  sure  to  leave  a  space  in  the  concrete  wall,  under  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
underpinning  support,  so  that  the  building  may  later  be  lowered  back  onto  the 
new  foundation  and  the  timber  removed.  This  opening  must  be  slightly  larger 
than  the  underpinning  support.  After  the  building  has  been  lowered  fill  these 
openings  with  concrete.  Lower  the  building  after  the  foundation  has  been  in  two 
weeks. 


38 


A  Concrete  Entrance  Floor 

At  a  point  3  feet  from  the  building,  dig  a  trench  6.  inches  wide  and  18  inches 
deep — the  length  of  this  trench  to  be  2  feet  greater  than  the  width  of  the  doorway 
of  the  building.  From  the  edge  of  the  trench  nearest  to  the  building,  dig  away  the 
earth  between  trench  and  building  to  a  depth  of  I  foot,  and  place  here,  to  a  depth 
of  6  inches,  a  fill  of  either  coarse  gravel  or  crushed  rock.  Do  not,  however,  place 
any  of  this  gravel  fill  in  the  trench.  Mix  concrete  I  :  2^  :  5,  and  lay  same,  first 
in  the  trench,  and  then  on  top  of  the  gravel  fill;  sloping  the  surface  so  that  it  just 
meets  the  floor  level  at  the  doorway.  Before  the  concrete  has  had  time  to  set, 
provide  a  runway  slot  for  the  sliding  doors — or  better,  build  little  guides  or  humps 
with  the  concrete,  to  hold  the  doors  in  position.  If  the  doors  happen  to  be  swinging 
ones,  place  a  gas  pipe  or  iron  socket  in  the  soft  concrete,  for  a  "shove-fastener." 

Note  the  concrete  curb  on  the  right  of  entrance  door.  This  prevents  the 
gravel  that  surrounds  the  building  from  washing  down  onto  the  approach  and  getting 
in  the  way  of  the  doors.  To 
build  this  curb,  use  i-inch 
planks  placed  on  top  of  the 
concrete  floor,  to  serve  as  forms 
to  hold  concrete  in  place. 

Materials  Required 

One  cubic  yard  of  crushed 
stone  or  screened  gravel;  2^2 
cubic  yards  of  sand ;  5  bags  of 
Portland  cement. 

This  entrance  floor  was 
constructed  in  half  a  day,  by 
one  man. 


39 


Farm  Buildings  Should  be  Connected  by  a  Con- 
crete Driveway 

By  using  concrete  to  connect  up  your  buildings,  you  have  a  solid,  substantial 
roadway  that  will,  last  for  all  time — instead  of  the  usual  muddy,  untidy  space  that 
ordinarily  separates  such  buildings. 

To  construct  a  driveway  between  the  various  buildings  of  a  farm,  first  excavate 
a  trench  12  inches  deep,  this  trench  being  the  exact  width  that  you  wish  the  finished 
driveway  to  be.  Six  feet  is  a  convenient  width;  but  the  drive  should  be  made 
slightly  wider  than  this  at  the  corners  to  provide  for  turning  of  vehicles. 

Place  in  the  trench  a  fill  of  gravel  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  and  tamp  it  well. 
On  top  of  the  gravel  fill,  place  your  concrete  mixture,  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  on  the 
sides,  and  7  inches  at  the  center. 

For  this  work,  concrete  should  be  mixed  in  proportions  I  :  2^  :  5,  and  vet 
enough  to  pack  well. 


'/       *a    *M>  ..'.•.  ••>**;* 


40 


To  finish,  no  mortar  is  needed.     Leave  the  surface  rough,  so  as  to  afford 
better  footing  for  the  horses  and  cattle. 


Materials  Required 

5  bags  of  Portland  cement 

y^  cubic  yard  of  sand 
I   cubic  yard  of  crushed  stone  or 

screened  gravel 


make  a  section  of  roadway 
6  by  10  feet 


Approximate  cost,  at  current  prices  of  materials,  6  cents  per  square  foot  of 
surface. 


Alleyways  Between  Buildings 

The  farmer  of  to-day  plans  for  comfort  and  convenience.  About  the  home, 
mud  is  the  greatest  of  all  nuisances.  In  the  spring  and  winter,  the  driveways  from 
the  public  road  and  the  alleyways  between  buildings  become  so  muddy  that  they 
are  often  impassable.  As  a  result  the  grassy  lawns  and  lots  are  driven  over,  cut 
to  pieces,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  farm  is  ruined.  Moreover,  in  bad 
weather  the  chores  cannot  be  done  unless  the  "  hands"  wear  rubber  boots.  The 
women  and  children  are  unable  to  get  out  to  gather  the  eggs  and  to  see  after  the 
poultry.  Muddy  feet  track  up  the  house  walks  and  floors. 

Alleyways  between  buildings  are  built  of  concrete  similar  to  driveways  with 
this  exception — they  are  made  dish-shaped  to  the  same  extent  that  the  driveway 
is  crowned.  This  carries  the  roof  water  away  from  the  buildings  instead  of  letting 
it  soak  in  around  the  foundation  walls. 


41 


Carriage  Washing  Floors 

Nothing  will  take  the  sticky  mud  off  the  wheels  and  body  of  a  rig  except  water. 
People  have  at  times  tried  to  remove  this  mud  by  scraping,  but  have  found  that 
after  the  mud  has  once  dried  a  large  amount  of  the  varnish  comes  off  with  it  and 
the  "looks"  of  the  carriage  is  ruined. 

Convenience  in  washing  means  that  the  wagon  is  pulled  just  outside  of  the 
barn  and  quite  near  the  pump  or  other  source  of  water  supply.  All  of  the  carriages 
are  washed  in  exactly  this  same  spot,  and,  as  this  is  done  day  after  day  the  washing 
place  very  shortly  becomes  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  mud  hole.  To  avoid  this 
a  concrete  floor  should  be  built. 

This  floor  should  be  of  the  size  to  take  not  only  the  wheels  of  the  rig  but  the 
shafts  or  tongue  as  well.  Unlike  feeding  and  other  floors,  this  floor  is  built  with 
a  slope  toward  the  center,  with  a  catch  basin  under  the  middle,  from  whick  a 
drain  leads.  Thus  all  of  the  water,  together  with  the  mud  coming  off  the  wagon, 
flows  into  the  basin.  This  basin  should  be  protected  with  a  grating,  with  holes  in 
same  not  less  than  }/±  of  an  inch.  This  grating  should  be  removable  so  that  the  mud, 
which  is  bound  to  flow  into  the  basin,  can  be  removed.  A  pipe  less  than  6  inches 
should  not  be  used  to  connect  this  basin  up  with  a  sewer  or  ditch  outlet.  This  will 
prevent  the  stoppage  of  the  drain  for  many  years.  A  slope  from  the  edges  of  the 
floor  to  the  drain  of  yi  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  should  be  made.  To  lay  the  floor 
proceed  exactly  as  described  in  "Sidewalks,"  and,  as  the  floor  is  exposed  to  the 
weather,  contraction  joints  must  be  provided,  as  in  Feeding  Floors. 

After  the  floor  is  finished  and  while  the  concrete  is  yet  soft,  make  grooves  in 
it,  running  from  the  basin  to  the  edges  of  the  floor.  This  can  be  done  by  taking  a 
V-shaped  strip  of  wood  and  driving  it  into  the  concrete  at  regular  intervals  by 
means  of  a  tamper.  This  strip  of  wood  should  be  thoroughly  greased  so  that  it 
may  be  removed  without  having  the  concrete  stick  to  its  surface. 


42 


Feeding  Floors  and  Barnyard  Pavements 

The  saving  principle  of  feeding  floors  has  long  been  recognized  by  successful 
breeders  and  feeders  of  live  stock.  The  trouble,  heretofore,  has  been  to  obtain  an 
entirely  satisfactory  material  for  floor  construction. 

Disadvantages  of  Wooden  Floors 

Wooden  floors  kept  the  feed  out  of  the  mud  and  dust  and  not  only  saved  every 
particle  of  grain  but  also  prevented  wheezing  coughs  and  otherwise  temporarily 
improved  the  health  of  the  animal.  However,  in  a  short  time,  the  best  wooden 
floors  rotted  out  and  became  infected  with  disease  germs.  Often  floors  had  to  be 
burned  to  free  the  farm  of  hog  cholera. 

Advantages  of  Concrete 

In  concrete  the  farmer  and  ranchman  have  found  an  ideal  floor  material. 
Such  floors  not  only  effect  a  saving  in  feed,  a  shortening  in  the  time  of  fattening 
and  a  decrease  in  labor,  but  also  afford  perfect  protection  to  the  health  of  the  animal. 
Concrete  floors  do  not  soak  up  water  and  therefore  cannot  become  infected  with 
disease  germs.  Their  surfaces  can  be  easily  cleaned  and  thoroughly  disinfected 
with  oils  and  dips.  Rats  cannot  nest  under  them.  Careful  tests  have  shown  that 
concrete  floors,  through  the  saving  of  grain  and  manure  alone,  pay  for  themselves 
in  the  short  period  of  one  year. 

How  to  Build  Feeding  Floors 

Feeding  floors  are  merely  several  sidewalks  laid  side  by  side,  and  the  same 
general  rules  of  construction  (given  under  SIDEWALKS,  page  28)  apply  to  them. 
Choose  a  site  in  the  lot  where  the  ground  is  slightly  sloping,  well  drained  and  wind 
protected,  and  convenient  to  feed  and  water. 


43 


Drainage  Foundation 

Excavate  to  a  depth  of  12  inches  for  the  drainage  foundation,  and  around  the 
outside  edges  of  the  entire  floor  dig  a  trench  12  inches  wide  and  18  inches  deep. 
(This  trench,  filled  with  concrete,  prevents  hog  wallows  from  undermining  the  floor 
and  keeps  the  rats  from  nesting  under  it.)  Fill  all  of  this  space  (except  the  trench) 
to  the  natural  ground  level  with  well  tamped  coarse  gravel,  crushed  rock,  tile  culls 
or  brickbats.  This  fill  forms  the  drainage  foundation  as  described  for  sidewalks. 

Grading  the  Floor 

The  floor  must  be  graded  or  sloped  so  that  water  will  not  collect  on  it  in  the 
winter  and  so  that  the  manure  washings  may  be  caught  by  the  gutters  and  run  to 
the  water-tight  concrete  manure  pit.  (To  shape  the  gutter,  make  a  mold  or 
templet  by  rounding  the  corners  on  the  flat  side  of  a  6-foot  length  of  a  4  by  6-inch 
timber.)  A  gentle  slope,  toward  the  low  corner,  of  34  of  an  inch  for  each  foot  of 
length  or  width  is  sufficient.  This  is  secured  by  the  use  of  a  heavy  grade  stake  at 
each  corner  of  the  floor,  a  straight-edge  or  a  grade  line,  and  a  spirit  level. 

It  is  an  advantage  to  have  a  feeding  floor  its  full  thickness  above  ground. 
Make  light  floors  4  inches  and  floors  subject  to  heavy  loads  6  inches  thick.  For  the 
forms  use  2-inch  lumber  of  a  width  equal  to  the  floor  thickness.  Begin  on  a  low 
side  of  the  floor.  Mark  the  grade  height  on  each  corner  stake  and  set  the  forms  to 
a  grade  cord  stretched  from  stake  to  stake.  Use  only  good  materials  and  mix  the 
concrete  i  :  2^/2  '  5  according  to  direction  on  page  15. 

Placing  the  Concrete 

Always  begin  placing  the  concrete  on  the  low  side  of  the  floor,  so  that  the  rain 
from  sudden  showers  will  not  run  from  the  hard  onto  the  newly  placed  concrete. 
Fill  the  trench  and  the  slab  section  of  the  forms  with  concrete.  Bring  the  surface 
to  grade  by  drawing  over  it  a  straight  edge  with  its  ends  on  the  opposite  forms  or 
with  one  end  on  the  form  and  the  other  on  the  finished  concrete.  Four  inches  in 
from  the  edge,  on  each  of  the  low  sides,  temporarily  embed  the  rounded  4  by  6-inch 


I/ 


gutter  mold  and  tamp  it  down  until  its  square  top  is  even  with  the  surface  of  the 
slab  section  of  the  floor.  Remove  the  mold,  finish  with  a  wooden  float  and  cure 
the  floor  as  described  on  pages  31-34.  Connect  the  gutters  with  the  manure  pit 
by  means  of  a  trough,  another  gutter,  or  by  large  drain  tile  laid  underground. 

On  the  next  page  is  given  an  itemized  bill  of  materials  necessary  for  a  6-inch 
floor  24  by  36  feet,  amply  large  to  accommodate  50  hogs. 


44 


Materials  Required 

Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel,  20  cubic  yards  @  $1.10 $22.00 

Sand,  10  cubic  yards  @  $1.00 10.00 

Portland  cement,  25^  barrels  @  $2.50 70.00 

$102.00 

Mixing  the  concrete  by  hand,  5  men  can  usually  finish  this  floor  in  two  days. 
Depending  upon  the  price  of  labor  and  materials  and  the  thickness  of  the  concrete, 
the  floor  will  cost  6  to  12  cents  for  each  square  foot  of  surface. 

Manure  Pits  and  Cisterns 

For  restoring  the  fertility  of  the  fields,  there  is  nothing  better  than  barnyard 
manure.  By  the  ordinary  methods  of  piling  it  on  the  ground  or  storing  it  in  wooden 
pens,  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  manure's  strength  is  wasted.  This  loss  is 
brought  about  in  two  ways: 

First — By  "leaching"  or  washing  out,  due  to  heavy  rains. 

Second — By  heating  or  "firing,"  caused  by  lack  of  sufficient  moisture. 

Since  concrete  pits  are  waterproof,  manure  can  be  kept  in  them  as  moist  as 
necessary.  Moreover,  with  concrete  pits  the  supply  of  manure  is  increased,  as 
all  the  liquid  manure,  from  the  gutters  of  the  barns,  barnyard  pavements  and 
feeding  floors,  is  saved. 

How  to  Build 

Locate  the  manure  pit  handy  to  the  barn  and  so  as  to  catch  the  manure 
from  the  outside  floors.  Two  pits  may  be  better  than  one.  Excavate  the  hole 
to  the  desired  size  and  depth.  (Manure  pits  are  seldom  over  4  feet  deep.)  Dig  a 
sump  hole  3  feet  square  and  2  feet  deep  at  one  corner  of  the  pit.  Slope  the 
floor  toward  this  hole,  from  which  a  pump  will  draw  the  liquid  manure.  Frame 
forms  of  i -inch  siding  on  2  by  4-inch  studding  spaced  2  feet,  so  as  to  mold  a  wall 
8  inches  thick.  If  the  dirt  sides  stand  firm,  they  will  serve  for  the  outside  form 


45 


and  nothing  but  an  inside  form  will  be  required.  Mix  the  concrete  I  -.2:4 
(see  page  n).  Lay  the  floor  so  that  it  will  be  one  solid  piece  6  inches  thick.  No 
contraction  joints  will  be  necessary.  Without  delay,  set  up  the  forms,  brace  them 
firmly  and  fill  them  with  concrete  as  directed  under  DIPPING  VATS,  pages  76-80.  If 
a  very  large  pit  is  needed,  build  it  with  sloping  concrete  ends  sufficiently  wide 
to  accommodate  a  manure  spreader.  Let  the  inclines  be  gentle,  and,  to  give  the 
horses  a  firm  footing,  embed  iron  cleats  every  18  inches  in  the  slopes,  the  same  as 
for  dipping  tanks.  Cisterns  for  liquid  manure  only,  may  be  made  like  ordinary 
CISTERNS,  page  68.  However,  the  solid  manure  rots  more  quickly  and  is  better 
for  the  fields  if  both  solids  and  liquids  are  kept  in  the  same  pit.  An  ordinary  pump, 
with  a  pipe  leading  to  the  sump  hole,  covered  with  a  grating,  is  a  convenient  means 
of  removing  the  liquid.  Liquid  manure  is  especially  good  for  the  vegetable  and 
flower  garden,  since  it  contains  no  weed  seed.  Cover  the  pits  or  keep  the  manure 
well  soaked  with  water,  so  as  to  remove  the  principal  breeding  places  of  the  house 
and  barn  fly. 

The  manure  pit  shown  in  the  photograph  is  located  in  the  side  of  a  littleHiill. 
It  is  21  feet  long,  14  feet  wide,  10  feet  deep  on  the  hillside  and  6  feet  deep  on  the 
low  side.  The  bottom  is  6  inches  and  the  walls  8  inches  thick.  Four  men  built 
the  pit  in  two  days. 

Materials  Required 

Screened  gravel  or  crushed  rock 17. cubic  yards  at  $1.10.  .  . 

Sand 8^2  cubic  yards  at  $1.00.  . 

Portland  cement 30  barrels  at  $2.50 

$102.20 

The  Value  of  Manure  Pits 

Rotten  manure  not  only  enriches  the  ground,  but  als.o  increases  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  One  load  of  well  rotted  manure  from  a  concrete  pit 
is  worth  two  loads  of  manure  as  ordinarily  stored. 


$18.70 

8.50 

75.00 


46 


Concrete  Barnyards 


The  advantages  of  concrete  feeding  floors  so  appealed  to  the  farmers  who  first 
built  them  that  they  enlarged  the  floors  until  their  entire  barnyards  were  surfaced 
with  concrete. 

It  is  no  uncommon  sight  in  the  spring  and  winter  to  see  an  earthen  barn  lot  so 
deep  with  mud  that  animals  go  thirsty  rather  than  attempt  a  trip  to  the  water 
trough. 

The  effect  is  bad  on  all  kinds  of  livestock,  especially  on  fattening  animals  and 
dairy  cattle.  "Feeders"  must  have  an  abundance  of  water  to  fatten  quickly. 
Insufficient  water  cuts  down  the  quantity  of  milk  given  by  dairy  cows.  Lack  of 
enough  exercise  further  decreases  the  yield.  An  occasional  trip  through  this  mud 
to  the  trough,  so  cakes  the  cow's  udders  with  dirt  that  the  milker  wastes  valuable 
time  in  washing  them — and  they  must  be  washed,  if  one  would  have  clean,  whole- 
some milk.  Continual  tracking  through  the  mud  not  only  makes  more  currying, 
but  often  produces  that  irritation  on  horses'  legs  known  as  "scratches."  Suddenly 
frozen,  such  an  earthen  lot  is  so  rough  that  it  is  impassable.  Moreover,  the  old 
barnyard — with  its  surface  worked  up  year  after  year — becomes  a  storage  place, 
which  carries  over  the  disease  germs  from  one  season  to  another.  The  "droppings " 
are  entirely  lost,  and,  mixed  with  the  earth,  tend  to  make  the  lot  muddier  the  follow- 
ing year.  To  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  all  the  manure  produced  on  a  farm 
should  be  saved  and  returned  to  the  fields. 

Concrete  Floors  Increase  Profits 

A  concrete  barnyard  makes  a  fine  exercise  lot  in  all  kinds  of  weather  and  always 
affords  a  dry  spot  for  the  animal's  bed.  Every  shower  washes  the  surface  clean  and 
flushes  the  droppings  into  the  manure  pits.  Concrete  yards  lighten  the  work  of  the 
housewife,  as  there  is  no  mud  to  be  tracked  on  the  walks  and  kitchen  floor.  The  use 
of  rubber  boots  is  unnecessary.  On  concrete  floors  not  a  particle  of  grain  need  be 


47 


wasted.  The  way  to  the  water  trough  is  always  dry,  smooth  and  passable.  Con- 
crete floors  promote  and  protect  the  health  of  farm  animals  and  increase  the  profits 
of  farming,  stock  raising  and  dairying. 

Construction 

The  construction  of  concrete  barnyards  is  exactly  like  that  of  FEEDING  FLOORS, 
page  43,  except  that  the  work  is  on  a  larger  scale.  Often  the  entire  lot  is  not  paved 
in  one  season,  but  from  year  to  year  as  the  farmer  has  time.  In  excavating  for  the 
drainage  foundation  (see  SIDEWALKS,  page  29),  be  careful  to  remove  all  manure 
and  straw  which  may  be  tramped  into  the  ground  and  which  may  be  so  solid  as  to 
resemble  earth.  In  time  any  kind  of  manure  decays,  shrinks,  causes  the  floor  to 
settle  and  forms  water  and  ice  pockets  on  its  surface.  Dig  the  trench  for  the  foun- 
dation apron  as  for  FEEDING  FLOORS — there  is  no  material  so  rat-proof  as  concrete. 

With  the  drainage  foundation  ready,  set  the  forms  in  the  manner  described  for 
SIDEWALKS.  Even  if  the  whole  lot  is  not  to  be  paved  at  one  time,  plan  the  grading 
for  the  entire  barnyard  so  that  the  completed  pavement  may  have  perfect  surface 
drainage.  Build  and  cure  the  pavement  and  make  provision  for  saving  the  manure 
the  same  as  for  concrete  FEEDING  FLOORS.  Do  not  be  too  particular  about  giving 
the  surface  a  smooth  finish — a  rougher  finish  affords  the  animals  a  better  footing. 
The  cost  per  square  foot  is  no  more  than  that  of  feeding  floors — the  investment 
yields  a  greater  profit. 

Feeding  Troughs,  Racks  and  Mangers 

With  a  progressive  farmer,  the  health  of  his  livestock  is  second  in  importance 
only  to  that  of  his  family.  Concrete  is  a  great  factor  in  promoting  and  preserving 
health.  With  concrete  troughs,  animals  are  seldom  "off  their  feed":  there  are  no 
slivers  to  stick  into  their  gums.  Even  with  wet  feed,  concrete  troughs  are  never  sour. 

Concrete  does  not  rot  and  become  infested  with  disease  germs.  Such  troughs 
and  mangers  can  be  thoroughly  disinfected  without  injuring  them. 


48 


Troughs  for  Horses,  Cattle,  and  Sheep 

In  general,  the  method  of  constructing  feeding  troughs  and  mangers  for  horses 
and  cattle  is  practically  the  same  as  for  WATERING  TROUGHS  AND  TANKS,  page  74. 
An  outdoor  trough,  suitable  for  feeding  grain  or  silage  to  cattle  and  horses,  is  shown 
on  page  48.  (However,  most  farmers  will  prefer  not  to  locate  a  feeding  trough  in  a 
fence  corner.)  This  trough  is  10  feet  long  and  2  feet  2  inches  wide,  outside  measure- 
ments. The  bottom  is  4  inches  thick  as  also  are  the  side  and  end  walls  at  the  top, 
but  these  walls  slope  on  the  inside  to  a  thickness  of  6  inches  at  the  bottom.  This 
extra  thickness  makes  not  only  a  stronger  feeding  trough,  but  also  one  more  easily 
cleaned  out.  The  entire  trough  is  reinforced  with  heavy  woven  wire  fencing  laid 
within  i  inch  of  the  bottom  and  the  same  distance  from  the  inside  face  of  the  side 
walls.  The  trough  is  held  I  foot  4  inches  above  ground  by  concrete  benches, 
2  feet  2  inches  wide,  I  foot  thick,  and  extending  3  Jeet  below  the  ground  or  feeding 
floor  surface. 

In  locating  troughs,  follow  the  same  principles  laid  down  under  FEEDING 
FLOORS.  Dig  the  trenches  for  the  concrete  supports  and  carry  the  concrete 
(mixed  I  :  2  :  4)  to  the  necessary  height  by  means  of  open  box  forms  similar  to 
the  one  shown  on  page  36.  Use  a  spirit  level  to  get  the  tops  of  these  supports  even. 
Immediately  set  the  outside  trough  form,  previously  made  with" openings  in  the 
bottom  board,  to  match  the  concrete  supports.  Provide  a  2-inch  drain  hole, 
corked  with  a  greased,  tapering  wooden  plug  long  enough  to  extend  through  the 
concrete.  Place  I  inch  of  concrete  over  the  bottom,  lay  the  heavy  woven  wire 
fencing  so  that  it  will  extend  up  into  the  side  walls.  Tamp  in  the  bottom  the 
remaining  3  inches  of  concrete.  Finish  this  concrete  with  a  steel  trowel.  At 
once  set  in  the  sloping  inside  mold,  built  as  one  piece  and  without  a  bottom. 
Fill  the  space  between  the  inside  and  outside  forms  with  wet  concrete.  After  the 
concrete  is -hard  enough  to  bear  considerable  pressure  of  the  thumb  (usually 
five  to  seven  hours),  carefully  remove  the  inside  mold.  No  painting  with  neat 
cement  (cement  mixed  with  water)  or  plastering  will  be  needed  if  the  inside  form 
is  smooth.  Do  not  take  down  the  outside  forms  for  two  weeks.  To  make  this 
same  trough  of  suitable  height  for  small  calves  or  sheep,  place  around  it  a  fill  of 
gravel  of  the  necessary  depth.  Two  men  can  build  such  a  trough  in  less  than  a 
day. 

Materials  Required 

Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel I      cubic  yard  at  $1.10 .  .  .  .$1.10 

Sand 1^  cubic  yard  at  $i  .00  ...      .50 

Portland  cement I  ^  barrels  at  $2.50 3.75 


Feeding  Troughs 
for   Hogs 

Feeding  troughs  for  hogs  are 
usually  built  as  a  part  of  the  feed- 
ing floor,  according  to  the  plan 
shown,  and  similar  to  WATERING 
TROUGHS,  page  74. 


49 


A  Fire-protected 
Feed  Cooker 

Concrete  is  a  first  aid  to  the 
farmer  in  preventing  fires. 

The  photographs  shown  here 
are  of  a  wooden  building  in  which 
a  feed  cooker  for  hogs  and  poultry 
is  installed. 

Discovery  of  a  fire  in  the 
building  a  few  years  ago  led  this 
farmer  to  thoroughly  protect  his 
building  by  surrounding  his  cocker 
with  that  most  fireproof  material 
— concrete. 

The  old  wooden  floor  was 
first  torn  out,  a  fill  of  coarse  gravel 
tamped  in,  and  a  5-inch  floor  of 
concrete  laid  on  top,  mixed 
I  :  2^/2  '  5-  Immediately  under 
and  around  the  cooker  the  floor 
was  dropped  down  8  inches  to  pre- 
vent chance  sparks  from  blowing 
about. 

At  the  back  of  the  cooker,  on 
the  2  by  4-inch  studding,  heavy 


50 


woven  wire  was  securely  fastened,  and  by  temporarily  placing  a  wooden  wall  4 
inches  in  front,  to  act  as  a  form,  an  8-inch  concrete  wall  was  built.  This  wall 
was  made  8  feet  wide  and  5  feet  high.  The  foundation  for  the  wall  extends  3 
feet  below  the  floor  level. 

On  the  top  of  this  wall  rests  the  chimney.  The  chimney  is  12  by  14  inches  on 
the  outside,  with  a  single  flue  8  inches  round,  and  is  10  feet  high.  This  height  is 
sufficient  to  clear  the  roof.  For  the  inside  form  8-inch  sewer  pipe  was  used  and 
left  in  place  (stovepipe  or  drain  tile  could  also  be  used).  Ordinary  box  forms  were 
used  for  the  outside  forms,  made  as  described  on  page  36. 

The  chimney  was  reinforced  with  a  ^/2-inch  rod  running  from  top  to  bottom  in 
each  corner,  i^  inches  from  the  edge.  The  lower  ends  of  these  rods  are  firmly 
embedded  in  the  concrete  wall  on  which  the  chimney  rests. 

As  this  improvement  was  made  by  the  farm  hands,  the  cost  of  the  floor  was 
only  5  cents  a  square  foot,  while  the  wall  and  chimney  cost  $5.00. 

Not  only  has  that  dread  of  fire  which  keeps  many  a  man  awake  at  night  been 
overcome,  but  the  whole  feed  cooker  house  can  be  kept  in  a  most  cleanly  condition 
at  all  times. 

Rats,  the  greatest  pest  known  to  the  farmer,  are  driven  away.  These  animals 
cannot  nest  in  concrete. 


51 


Hog  Wallows — Automatic  Dipping  Tanks 

A  wallow  is  as  necessary  for  a  hog  as  a  bath-tub  is  for  a  human  being.  A 
clean  bath  benefits  the  health  of  a  hog,  especially  if  the  wallow  is  filled  with  a 
dipping  solution.  This  combination  not  only  saves  the  lives  of  fat  hogs  on  hot 
days,  but  also  aids  greatjy  in  preventing  cholera.  See  DIPPING  TANKS,  page  76. 

Locate  the  w^allow  in  a  convenient  place  near  the  water  supply.  A  level,  well 
drained  spot,  where  the  mud  will  not  wash  into  it,  is  best.  (The  wallow  shown  in 
the  photograph  is  in  the  hog  house,  and  is  a  large  dish  in  the  concrete  floor.)  Make 
the  wallow  8  by  12-feet.  Dig  out  the  hole  with  straight  sides  to  the  depth  of  2 
feet  2  inches.  Lay  a  drainage  foundation  10  inches  thick — see  SIDEWALKS,  page 
29.  Set  a  lo-inch  board  around  the  outside  of  the  hole  to  keep~the  dirt  from 
crumbling  in  on  the  concrete. 

Mix  the  concrete  1:2:4  and  place  a  6-inch  floor  in  the  hole.  As  the  concrete 
is  laid,  embed  woven  wire  in  it  I  inch  from  the  bottom.  Have  the  concrete  for  the 
side  walls  fairly  dry  and  tamp  it  to  the  shape  and  dimensions — 4  inches  thick  at  the 
top  and  10  inches  at  the  floor  line.  The  sloping  sides  make  cleaning  easy.  Keep 
all  animals  away  from  the  wallow  for  two  weeks.  Three  men  built  this  wallow 
easily  in  one  day. 


Materials  Required 


Screened  gravel  or  crushed  rock  .  . 

Sand 

Portland  cement .  . 


.  .  .2^  cubic  yards  @  $1.10.  . 
.  .  .  i  J4  cubic  yards  @  $i  .00 .  . 
.  .  .4^/2  barrels  @  $2.50 


$2.75 
1.25 


$15-25 


52 


A  Corn  Crib  Floor  of  Concrete 

Rats  love  grain;  and  therefore  the  corn  crib  is  usually  the  rat  headquarters 
of  the  farm.  By  building  corn  cribs  and  granary  floors  of  concrete  the  farmer 
takes  a  long  step  toward  rat  extermination. 

Lay  out  the  building:  for  the  foundation  wall,  dig  a  trench  12  inches  wide  and 
from  2  to  3  feet  below  ground  level.  Set  box  forms,  so  as  to  bring  the  surface  of 
the  finished  foundation  and  floor  ij^  to  2  feet  above  ground  level,  according  to 
the  height  of  the  "drag"  conveyor  used  by  local  corn-shellers. 

As  the  floor  will  only  be  6  inches  thick,  fill  in  between  the  foundation  walls 
with  gravel  to  within  a  distance  of  6  inches  of  top  of  forms.  Soak  this  fill  thor- 
oughly, and  tamp  and  roll  it  well,  before  placing  concrete  on  top. 

Mix  concrete  (i  :  2  :  4)  and  fill  the  foundation  forms.  Beginning  at  one  end 
of  the  building,  lay  the  concrete  floor  in  sections  4  feet  wide,  and  continue  until  the 
entire  floor  is  placed. 

In  order  to  fasten  the  wooden  sill  for  the  granary  uprights  to  the  concrete 
floor,  insert  24-inch  bolts  heads  down  or  strap  irons  bent  like  capital  Z's  at  the 
necessary  points  in  the  green  concrete  of  foundation.     The  bolts  are  long  enough 
to  pass  through  holes  in   the  sill 
and  to  receive  nuts  and  washers. 
The  straps  are  long  enough  to  be 
spiked  to  the  uprights. 

Finish  the  surface  of  the  floor 
with  a  steel  trowel,  so  as  to  render 
scooping  of  the  grain  an  easy 
matter. 

Approximate  cost  per  square 
foot  of  floor  surface,  12  cents. 


53 


Concrete  Barn  Floors 

Investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  have  disclosed  the  fact  that 
many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  and  malaria,  often  considered  unaccountable  in  their 
origin,  are  the  result  of  the  germs  being  carried  by  the  house-fly.  Screens,  fly- 
paper, and  poisons  are  all  very  well,  in  a  small  way,  but  to  free  the  place  of  flies 
means  getting  rid  of  the  conditions  which  produce  them.  Leaving  out  the  manure 
pile  (see  MANURE  PITS,  page  456),  the  favorite  breeding-place  of  flies  is  the  foul 
floors  of  the  cow  and  horse  barns.  The  barn  can  be  almost  entirely  rid  of  flies  by 
building  floors  and  manure  pits  of  concrete. 

The  Advantages  of  Concrete  Floors 

There  are  no  flies  to  make  the  horses  stamp. 

Rats  have  no  hiding-place  about  concrete  floors. 

No  other  floor  is  as  slick  as  a  manure-soaked  wooden  floor.  Concrete  floors 
may  be  finished  as  rough  or  corrugated,  as  may  be  desired. 

Concrete  floors  do  not  soak  up  water.  The  liquids  run  into  the  gutters  and 
thence  to  the  manure  pits.  The  floor  may  be  flushed  with  water  and  kept  as  clean 
and  odorless  as  a  kitchen  floor. 

All  kinds  of  barn  floors  must  be  bedded  down.  Concrete  floors  are  warmer 
and  cleaner  than  any  other  kind,  for  they  are  always  dry.  Besides,  heat  and  cold 
do  not  easily  pass  through  concrete. 

Concrete  floors  afford  good  fire  protection.  No  fire  can  be  started  on  concrete 
floors  by  a  shiftless  farm  "hand"  dropping  cigarette  stubs  or  matches  on  their 
surface. 

Good  farm  "  hands  "  prefer  to  work  where  there  are  concrete  floors :  they  lighten 
the  labor.  Concrete  floors  have  no  uneven  edges  to  catch  the  scoop  and  to  ruffle 
the  temper. 


54 


Concrete  in  the  Cow  Barn 

With  cleanly  milk  and  butter  producers,  it  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  floor  or  no 
floor;  it  is  merely  a  question  of  which  is  the  best  floor  for  the  cow  barn.  The  best 
dairymen  long  ago  decided  in  favor  of  concrete.  On  account  of  many  epidemics 
of  "  catching  "  diseases,  directly  traceable  to  milk,  city  authorities  are  forcing  the 
careless  dairy-man  to  decide — concrete  floors  are  one  of  the  requirements  for 
certified  milk. 

The  stalls  of  dairy  barns  are  arranged  with  the  cows  in  the  opposite  rows  of 
stalls  standing  with  their  heads  or  their  heels  toward  each  other. 

The  stall  plan  depends  entirely  upon  the  arrangements  for  bringing  in  feed 
and  removing  manure.  The  plan  below  is  for  a  barn  with  the  cows'  heads  toward 
each  other.  If  the  dairyman  prefers  the  other  arrangement,  the  same  plan  can 
easily  be  adapted  to  it.  A  width  of  8  feet  6  inches  provides  sufficient  room  for  a 
manure  spreader. 


55 


How  to  Build  Dairy  Barn  Floors 

Consider  a  barn  planned  to  have  the  two  rows  of  cows  facing  each  other. 

Remove  all  manure  and  other  foreign  matter  together  with  such  humps  of 
earth  as  may  be  necessary  to  give  the  floor  a  slight  slope  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  manure  will  be  taken  out.  Begin  the  construction  of  the  floors  at  the  two 
sides  of  the  barn  so  that  the  middle  and  ends  may  be  used  as  working  space. 

On  the  earthen  floor,  at  a  distance  of  4^  feet  from  the  side  walls  of  the  barn, 
set  on  edge  a  line  of  2  by  6-inch  boards,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  building. 
Support  these  boards  by  stakes  driven  firmly  in  the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  board 
away  from  the  barn  wall.  By  means  of  a  carpenter's  spirit  level  and  a  grade  line, 
see  that  the  tops  of  these  boards  have  an  even  slope  (say  ^-inch  per  foot)  toward 
the  manure  pit.  Allowing  a  clear  intervening  space  of  10  inches,  set  up  in  a  similar 
way  a  line  of  2  by  8-inch  boards  with  the  supporting  stakes  inside  of  the  lo-inch 
space  and  with  the  top  of  this  board  2  inches  higher  than  the  6-inch  board.  ^In 
this  space  the  drop  gutter  will  later  be  constructed. 

The  Alleyway 

Between  the  wall  and  the  6-inch  board  tamp  in  sufficient  gravel  to  even  off 
all  irregularities  in  the  ground  surface  and  to  allow  the  building  of  a  5-inch  thickness 
of  floor,  sloping  %  inch  from  the  wall  toward  the  gutter.  Mix  the  concrete 
1  :  2/^  '  5.  tamp  into  place,  and  finish  the  surface  with  a  wooden  float  and  a  wire 
brush.  The  roughened  surface  thus  produced  gives  the  cows  a  good  footing. 

The  Stall  Floor 

With  the  alley  finished,  begin  the  construction  of  the  floor  of  the  stalls  proper. 
For  the  average  sized  cow,  the  usual  length  of  stall  is  4  feet  8  inches  from  stanchion 


56 


to  drop  gutter  and  the  width  is  3  feet  6  inches.  The  stall  floor  should  slope  not 
less  than  Y^  inch  toward  the  drop  gutter  to  provide  for  drainage.  If  an  adjustable 
stanchion  fastener  is  to  be  used,  set  it  in  the  center  of  the  6-inch  manger  wall.  The 
length  of  the  stall  is  regulated  by  this  device.  For  a  stall  4  feet  8  inches  long, 
set  the  outside  board  (2  by  12  inches)  of  the  manger  wall  5  feet  2  inches  from  the 
drop  gutter.  The  top  of  this  board  will  be  7  inches  above  the  finished  floor.  This 
extra  height  provides  a  form  for  the  manger 
wall.  In  this  space,  place  the  5-inch  floor  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  alleyway  was  laid.  If 
gas-pipe  stall  divisions  are  to  be  used  later, 
make  mortises  in  the  floor  at  the  proper  points 
by  tamping  the  concrete  around  a  core  of  the 
right  size,  removing  the  core  when  the  concrete 
has  stiffened. 

The  Manger 

As  soon  as  the  floor  of  three  stalls  has  been 
concreted  and  while  the  concrete  is  yet  green, 
build  the  concrete  manger  wall  upon  the  new 
stall  floor.  The  projecting  7  inches  of  the  2  by 
12-inch  board  already  in  place  serves  as  the 
outer  wall  form.  "Toe  nail"  two  I  by  6-inch 
boards  together  at  their  edges,  thus  providing 
a  7-inch  height  for  the  other  manger  wall  form 
and  a  bearing  plate  to  rest  on  the  green  stall  floor.  Set  this  wall  form  so  as  to 
leave  a  6-inch  space  for  the  manger  wall.  Cross-brace  these  wall  forms  upon 
each  other  and  if  necessary  drive  an  occasional  nail  through  the  bearing  plate 
into  the  new  concrete.  Fill  the  space  between  the  forms  with  concrete,  setting 


57 


the  stanchion  fasteners  at  the  same  time.  Continue  in  the  same  manner  until 
the  stall  floors  are  finished.  If  desired,  the  back  wall  of  the  manger  may  be  given 
a  dish  shape  for  a  swinging  stanchion. 

Then  commence  the  work  on  the  other  side  of  the  barn,  constructing  the  floor 
of  the  alleyway  and  stall  in  exactly  the  same  manner. 

The  Feedway 

With  the  alleys  and  stalls  finished,  begin  work  on  the  feedway.  If  possible, 
this  should  be  at  least  8  feet  wide. 

As  the  bottom  of  the  manger  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  stall  floor  and  since 
the  top  of  the  feedway  floor  must  be  at  least  8  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  man- 
ger, place  sufficient  gravel  fill  (well  tamped)  to  bring  about  this  result.  To  hold 
in  place  the  5-inch  concrete  of  the  feedway  alley  floor  and  to  provide  for  sloping 
front  walls  of  the  mangers,  set  a  2  by  lo-inch  board,  spaced  (from  the  other  wall  of 
the  manger)  I  foot  6  inches  at  the  bottom  and  I  foot  10  inches  at  the  top.  Ttyese 
sloping  walls  allow  all  feed  to  be  swept  back  into  the  mangers  and  all  trash  to  be 
easily  removed  from  them.  Build  the  5-inch  floor  of  the  feedway,  crowning  it  to 
6  inches  thick  in  the  middle.  See  SIDEWALKS,  page  31. 

Horse  Barn  Floors 

Concrete  floors  are  equally  as  valuable  for  the  horse  barn  as  for  the  cow  stable. 
The  same  principles  govern  the  floor  construction.  Naturally  there  must  be  a  few 
changes  in  the  dimensions.  Single  stalls  are  usually  5  feet  wide  and  9  feet  from  the 
front  wall  of  the  manger  to  the  drop  gutter. 

As  the  gutter  is  generally  covered  with  a  rough  cast-iron  plate  sunk  flush  with 
the  concrete,  carrying  liquids  alone,  it  need  not  be  so  wide  and  deep  as  for  the 
dairy  barn.  A  clear  width  of  10  and  a  depth  of  3  inches  are  sufficient. 


58 


Concrete  Mangers 

Many  farmers  are  today  building  their  mangers  or  racks  of  concrete.  "Stump 
suckers"  lose  the  habit  when  fed  in  concrete  mangers. 

The  manger  is  constructed  along  the  general  lines  laid  down  for  OUTDOOR 
FEEDING  TROUGHS,  page  48.  A  form  satisfactory  for  building  horse  barn  mangers 
is  shown  in  the  photograph.  The  feed  trough  can  be  molded  as  a  part  of  the  manger 
by  using  a  box  form  like  an  ordinary  wooden  feeding  trough,  but  6  inches  wider 
and  without  end  pieces.  Saw  out  the  manger  forms  so  that  the  box  will  fit  the 
opening.  When  the  manger  forms  have  been  filled  with  concrete  to  the  feed 
trough  level,  place  I  inch  of  concrete  over  the  bottom  of  the  trough  form,  lay  in  a 


strip  of  heavy  woven  wire  fencing,  and  then  place  the  remaining  2  inches  of  the 
3-inch  bottom.  Immediately  set  upon  this  concrete  a  bottomless  box  with  end 
pieces,  of  a  size  to  allow  for  the  4-inch  manger  wall  and  the  3-inch  side  walls  of  the 
trough.  Fill  both  manger  and  trough  forms  and  embed  a  3/2-inch  rod  in  the  side 
walls  of  the  trough  I  inch  from  the  top.  Make  holes  in  the  manger  wall  for  the 
hitching  strap  by  inserting  a  2-inch  greased  peg  in  the  concrete.  Imbed  a  i-foot 
length  of  3^-inch  rod  in  the  concrete  above  this  hole. 

Scientists  have  found  that  rats  distribute  more  disease  than  any  other  animal. 
Recognizing  the  danger,  state  and  city  authorities,  the  world  over,  are  spending 
vast  sums  of  money  in  exterminating  this  pest.  If  rats  have  no  nesting-place,  they 
cannot  stay  on  the  farm.  Rats  and  mice  cannot  find  a  home  about  concrete  floors, 
nor  can  they  climb  concrete  barn  walls. 

In  a  stable  floored  with  concrete,  the  horses  can  rest  at  noontime  instead  of 
stamping  at  flies. 


59 


Farmers  Build  Barn  Approaches  of  Concrete 

For  purposes  of  drainage,  concrete  barns  are  often  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill, 
the  lower  story  being  used  for  the  livestock,  while  the  second  floor  is  used  as  a 
wagon  house  and  for  feed  and  storage.  This  arrangement  necessitates  a  "barn 
approach."  Originally  these  approaches  were  simply  of  earth,  piled  up  in  front  of 
the  door;  and  quite  often  the  earth  extended  beyond  the  ends  of  the  barn. 

By  not  allowing  the  approach  fill  to  come  right  up  to  the  barn,  the  lower 
story  of  the  barn  receives  the  full  benefit  of  light  and  ventilation  on  all  four 
sides. 

The  concrete  bridge  gives  a  shelter  for  wagons  and  tools;  while  a  root  cellar 
may  be  conveniently  built  under  the  barn  approach. 

Such  an  approach  adds  great- 
ly to  the  appearance  of  the  barn 
and  its  surroundings. 

Economy  of  space  made  it 
desirable  to  provide  a  retaining 
wall  to  hold  the  earth  in  position 
— and  concrete  naturally  came 
into  use  for  the  purpose. 

The  earth  fill  already  in  place 
in  front  of  the  barn  door  should 
be  cut  out  to  the  desired  width 
and  a  trench  dug  along  both  sides 
below  the  ground  level  to  a  depth 
of  2^  or  3  feet,  and  I  foot  wide. 

Only  outside  forms  are 
needed,  as  the  earth  fill  in  the 
barn  approach  acts  as  an  inside 


60 


form.  These  outside  forms  may  be  made  up  in  sections  as  large  as  desired,  of 
i -inch  planks,  with  the  necessary  upright  studding. 

Mix  concrete  1:2:4. 

Place  the  concrete  in  the  foundation,  erect  the  forms,  holding  these  in 
position  by  nailing  to  stakes  driven  back  of  the  forms  in  the  ground.  The  concrete 
can  be  placed  with  greatest  convenience  from  the  top  of  the  earth  fill  that  forms 
the  approach.  In  shoveling  into  the  form,  be  careful  that  the  concrete  strikes  the 
wood  form  instead  of  the  earthen  side,  as  concrete  mixed  with  earth  does  not  give 
the  fullest  possible  strength. 

A  Concrete  Barn 
Foundation 

On  account  of  convenient 
arrangement,  economy  of  space, 
and  protection  to  the  stock,  sec- 
ond story  barns  have  become  very 
popular. 

At  first  the  use  of  concrete 
for  the  walls  of  the  first  story 
was  looked  upon  with  doubt.  It 
might  be  damp.  It  might  make 
a  cold  stable.  Yet  the  character 
of  the  material  so  well  fitted  the 
use  that  it  was  tried,  found  en- 
tirely satisfactory',  and  today  is 
being  used  for  the  lower  story  of 
thousands  of  barns  every  year.  As  this  arrangement  does  not  give  a  perfect  fire 
protection  to  the  stock,  a  ceiling  of  concrete  is  provided,  furnishing  a  floor  for  the 


61 


carriage  house,  hay  loft  and  granary,  through  which  rats  cannot  gnaw.  With  this 
floor  of  concrete,  the  top  of  a  barn  can  burn  off  and  the  stock  be  perfectly  safe. 

Excavate  a  foundation  trench  to  a  depth  below  the  frost  line,  twenty  inches 
wide.  Fill  with  concrete  mixed  i  :  2^/2  :  5.  On  this  foundation  erect  the  forms 
for  the  side  walls,  spaced  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  wall  12  inches  thick.  These 
forms  are  made  of  i-inch  siding,  with  2  by  4-inch  studs,  spaced  18  inches  apart. 
Fasten  the  forms  securely  at  top  and  bottom  as  described  in  forms  for  "Small 
Farm  Buildings,"  page  82.  While  erecting  the  forms,  place  in  position  frames 
for  the  window  and  door  openings.  These  frames  are  removed  after  the  concrete 
has  become  hard  and  the  windows  and  doors  placed.  If  the  concrete  extends 
above  the  windows,  place  three  ^-inch  iron  rods  3  inches  above  each  opening, 
and  extending  18  inches  beyond  its  sides.  Insert  bent  iron  rods  in  the  concrete 
around  the  corners,  at  intervals  of  every  2  feet  of  height.  Having  carried  the 
wall  to  the  desired  height,  provide  for  attaching  the  wooden  superstructure  to  it 
by  placing  iron  bolts  every  5  feet  in  the  concrete  while  it  is  yet  soft.  Tliese 
should  be  placed  with  the  head  down,  allowing  the  nut  end  to  extend  above  the 
wall  a  sufficient  distance  to  pass  through  the  sill  and  to  afford  length  for  a  nut  and 
washer. 

If  a  concrete  ceiling  is  to  be  placed  over  the  stable,  erect  forms  in  the  same  way 
as  for  a  cistern  cover  described  on  page  69.  This  ceiling  will  have  to  be  carefully 
reinforced,  and  if  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  quantity  and  position  of  this  rein- 
forcing, a  competent  engineer  should  be  consulted. 

Entire  barns  of  concrete  are  being  built  in  ever  increasing  numbers.  If  so 
built,  the  fire  danger  for  that  barn  is  forever  removed.  A  barn  of  concrete,  how- 
ever, with  a  wooden  roof  is  not  perfectly  fireproof.  If  the  hay  catches  fire  in  such 
a  barn,  the  roof  is  burned  up. 

Any  one  who  has  the  ingenuity  to  build  an  entire  barn  of  concrete  can  build 
a  concrete  roof  as  well. 


62 


Wind  Walls  and  Their  Importance 

To  be  healthy,  stock  need  exercise — in  winter  as  well  as  summer.     But  few 
farms  are  provided  with  an  exercise  lot  sufficiently  well  protected  against  winter 
blasts  to  provide  a  safe  exercising 
place. 

The  exercise  lot  should  be 
located  on  the  warm  side  of  the 
buildings.  Erect  the  wind  wall 
on  the  side  from  which  the  winter 
storms  most  often  come.  Prob- 
ably the  most  convenient  way  to 
build  the  wall  will  be  in  sections 
of  10  feet  in  length.  The  wall 
will  be  3  inches  thick  at  top,  12 
inches  thick  at  the  base,  7  feet 
above  and  3  below  ground,  with 
the  slope  side  toward  exercise  lot. 

To  securely  brace  the  sec- 
tions of  this  wall,  large  posts 
(called  buttresses)  are  needed. 
These  posts  are  the  full  height 
of  the  wall  and  are  12  by  18 
inches  square.  The  narrow  side  is 
set  with  the  line  of  fence,  and  the 
buttresses  are  placed  1 1  feet  apart 
from  center  to  center.  The  forms 
for  these  buttresses  are  the  same  as 


63 


for  gate  posts,  with  the  exception  that  a  beveled  2  by  4-inch  timber  is  nailed  ver- 
tically to  the  inside  of  each  side  wall  of  the  form,  3  inches  from  the  back  board. 
This  leaves  a  slot  in  the  finished  buttress,  into  which  the  slab  sections  of  the  wall 
are  later  "keyed."  Through  these  2  by  4's,  at  points  3  and  15  inches  below  the 
tops,  bore  f^-inch  holes  through  which  J^-inch  reinforcement  rods  will  be  placed 
and  allowed  to  project  into  the  wall  proper  about  18  inches. 

Locate  the  points  for  the  centers  of  the  buttresses,  the  first  buttress  at  the 
beginning  of  the  wall.  Dig  a  hole  for  each  buttress  12  by  18  inches  and  4  feet 
deep  and  erect  the  buttress  forms.  Fill  the  forms  with  wet  concrete,  mixed 
i  12:4.  Do  not  forget  to  insert  at  the  proper  time  the  3-foot  lengths  of  ^/2-inch 
rods  in  the  %-inch  holes  above  mentioned.  Brace  the  forms  securely,  to  keep 
them  in  position.  After  the  first  two  buttresses  are  in  place,  dig  out  the  I  by 
4-foot  foundation  trench  and,  over  it  and  between  the  buttresses,  erect  the  box 
forms  for  the  slab  sections,  with  the  sloping  side  next  to  the  lot.  These  forms  are 
made  of  i-inch  siding  nailed  to  2  by  4-inch  studding  securely  braced  at  bottom 
and  tied  together  by  cross-pieces  at  the  top.  On  the  working  side,  add  the  siding 
as  needed,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  placing  of  the  concrete. 

Remove  the  side  forms  for  buttress  just  before  placing  the  forms  for  wall 
proper.  In  the  center  of  wall,  within  6  inches  of  the  top,  embed  a  lo-foot  length 
of  3^-inch  iron  rod.  After  the  wall  is  one  week  old,  take  down  the  wall  forms, 
erect  them  between  the  next  two  buttresses,  and  proceed  with  the  construction 
in  the  same  manner. 

Wind  walls  are  often  made  with  straight  sides.  While  this  takes  more  con- 
crete, the  saving  in  erection  of  forms  probably  offsets  this  additional  cost. 

The  materials  required  for  each  lo-foot  section  of  wall  and  I  buttress  are  two 
cubic  yards  crushed  stone  or  screened  gravel,  I  cubic  yard  sand,  12  bags  of  Port- 
land cement.  Approximate  cost,  $15.00. 


Concrete  and  the  Silo 

A  silo  is  a  tank  for  the  preservation  of  fodder  in  its  green  state,  for  feeding 
stock  at  times  when  there  is  no  natural  pasture — that  is  in  winter  and  in  the  hot, 
dry  months  of  summer.  By  the  use  of  silos  fodder  is  canned  very  much  as  a  house- 
wife cans  fruit  or  vegetables. 

Concrete  fulfils  every  requirement  for  a  first-class  silo,  providing  the  added 
advantages  of  being  absolutely  fireproof  and  everlasting,  possessed  by  silos  built 
of  no  other  material.  For  instruction  in  building  silos,  see  Bulletin  No.  21  of  the 
Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers,  sent  free  on  application. 

Space  does  not  permit  us  to  go  fully  into  the  construction  of  a  concrete  silo 
and  we  can  only  give  the  requirements  for  a  good  silo,  and  show  how  concrete  fills 
them  all. 

Silos  must  be  air-tight.  The  admission  of  air  causes  the  fodder  to  mould, 
and  the  stock  will  not -eat  it. 

Air  cannot  leak  through  a  concrete  silo. 

Silos  must  be  water-tight.  If  they  are  not,  the  juices,  so  necessary  to  keep  the 
fodder  green,  will  leak  out,  and  the  fodder  spoils. 


65 


Concrete,  properly  mixed,  is  water-tight. 

Silos  must  be  smooth  on  the  inside.  A  silo  with  a  rough  inside  surface, 
catches  the  cornstalks,  and  prevents  proper  packing. 

Concrete  can  be  made  so  smooth  that  many  firms  building  silos  of  cfcher 
materials  finish  the  inside  with  a  coat  of  cement  and  sand. 

The  fodder  lasts  better  if  kept  at  an  even  temperature.  Concrete  does  not 
conduct  heat  or  cold.  It  keeps  the  heat  in  the  fodder  in  winter,  and  keeps  the  heat 
out  of  the  fodder  in  summer.  Nature  provides  the  fodder  with  the  proper  amount 
of  heat  to  preserve  it  perfectly. 

Rats  nesting  in  the  silage  ruin  it. 

Concrete  is  the  greatest  rat-proof  material  known. 

In  addition  to  these  reasons,  concrete  silos  are  not  attacked  by  the  juices  com- 
ing from  the  fodder.  They  do  not  rot  by  alternate  wetting  and  drying. 

Fire,  that  greatest  of  farm  scourges,  cannot  destroy  the  crop  if  stored  in  a 
concrete  silo.  A  farmer  may  rebuild  a  barn,  but  the  crops  lost  through  the  burning 
of  the  building  are  lost  forever. 


.66 


Sanitary  Water  Supply 


As  the  laws  of  health  become  better  understood,  greater  precautions  are  taken 
to  prevent  sickness.  For  years  all  evidence  has  been  pointing  to  drinking  water  as 
a  common  source  of  most  diseases  and  the  principal  means  of  spreading  sickness. 
Every  well,  spring  and  cistern,  open  to  surface  water  or  walled  and  covered  with 
materials  through  which  surface  water  can  seep,  is  liable  to  contain  disease  germs. 
Concrete  walls  and  covers  are  water-tight:  they  afford  perfect  protection  for  both 
man  and  beast. 

How  to  Protect  Wells 

Many  bored  and  dug  wells,  sunk  years  ago,  afford  such  excellent  water  that 
their  owners  prefer  to  keep  them.  This  is  often  made  possible  by  the  use  of 
concrete.  Remove  the  brick  of  the  wall  down  to  dense  clay  through  which  water 
will  not  run,  usually  not  more  than  6  feet.  If  the  earthen  wall  stands  firm,  only 
one  form,  fitting  inside  the  brick  wall,  is  needed.  Make  this  form  of  narrow 
flooring  securely  fastened  on  the  inside  to  wagon  tires  or  to  curved  wooden  tem- 
plates, and  long  enough  to  extend  2  feet  below  the  point  to  which  the  brick  are 
to  be  removed  and  4  inches  above  the  ground  level.  If  the  earthen  wall  shows 
signs  of  crumbling,  before  taking  out  the  brick,  dig  back  the  ground  to  the  necessary 
depth  and  use  an  outside  form.  Lower  the  forms  into  place  and  fill  them  with 
I  -.2:4  concrete.  In  placing  the  concrete  follow  the  directions  given  under 
UNDERGROUND  CISTERNS,  page  68. 

The  steel  casing  for  driven  well  must  end  below  the  frost  line  so  as  to  keep 
the  underground  connecting  pipes  from  freezing.  This  construction  exposes  the 
house  supply  to  the  dangers  of  surface  water.  •  Concrete  walls  or  housings  are  the 
only  means  of  protection.  Make  the  forms  and  build  the  housing  according  to  the 
rules  laid  down  for  UNDERGROUND  CISTERNS,  pages  68-70.  The  housing  shown 


67 


in  the  photograph  is  5  by  6  feet  by  4  feet  deep,  sufficiently  roomy  for  inspecting, 
adjusting  and  repairing  pipe  connections.  The  walls  and  floor  are  of  1:2:4 
concrete  6  inches  thick.  One-half  inch  bolts  project  2^  inches  above  the  walls 
for  fastening  the  wooden  cover.  A  4-inch  removable  cover  of  concrete,  molded 
in  two  pieces,  makes  a  more  sanitary  covering.  The  service  pipes  were  laid  in 
4-inch  drain  tile  slightly  above  the  floor  of  the  housing.  A  tile  of  the  same  size, 
laid  on  a  grade,  carries  away  all  the  leakage  of  the  fittings.  Two  men  built  the 
housing  in  one  day. 

Materials  Required 

Screened  gravel  or  crushed  rock 3  cubic  yards  at  $1.10 $3.30 

Sand i  y%  cubic  yards  at  $i .00 ...      i .50 


Portland  cement 5^  barrels  at  $2.50 . 


13-75 


$18.55 


Well  platforms  are  made  like  cistern  covers  (see  page  69)  except  that  they 
are  not  molded  fixed  in  place,  but  loose  and  removable,  so  that  the  well  can  be 
cleaned  at  any  time.  Concrete  well  covers  keep  mice  and  frogs  out  of  the  well. 
Even  scrub  water  cannot  seep  in. 


Underground  Cisterns  and  Cistern  Platforms 

Underground  cisterns  are  useless  if  they  leak.  In  dry  weather  they  are 
empty,  and  at  other  times  the  ground  water  seeps  in  and  makes  the  "soft"  water  as 
"hard"  as  that  from  the  well.  Concrete  cisterns  have  no  joints  to  leak:  they  are 
built  in  one  solid  piece. 


68 


In  placing  the  cistern,  select  a  site  convenient  to  the  principal  down-spout 
and  the  kitchen.  Do  not  forget  to  make  allowance  for  8-inch  walls  in  laying  out 
the  plan.  If  the  ground  in  which  the  pit  is  dug  is  sufficiently  firm  to  stand  alone, 
no  outside  form  will  be  needed. 
Otherwise  the  hole  must  be  dug 
large  enough  to  receive  an  out- 
side form  built  similar  to  the 
inside  one.  Make  the  inside 
form  of  i -inch  boards  on  2  by 
4-inch  studding  so  that  the 
siding  will  be  toward  the  earth 
walls.  Mix  the  concrete  I  :2  14 
and  lay  a  6-inch  floor  on  the 
earth  bottom.  Immediately  set 
the  wall  forms  on  all  sides.  In 
filling  the  wall  space,  be  careful  not  to  shovel  the  concrete  against  the  earthen 
wall:  dirt  in  concrete  is  liable  to  make  a  leaky  wall. 

After  the  concrete  side  walls  frave  been  brought  to  ground  level,  set  a  5-inch 
board  on  edge  around  the  outside  of  the  cistern,  so  as  to  hold  the  concrete  for  the 
platform.  Saw  off  the  uprights  of  the  inside  form  6  inches  below  the  finished  top 
of  the  concrete  cover,  and  nail  2  by  4-inch  floor  joists  even  with  their  tops.  Floor 
the  joists  with  i-inch  boards.  Braces,  to  keep  the  wooden  platform  from  sagging, 
may  be  placed  down  the  middle  of  the  cistern  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  To  provide 
for  a  manhole  opening,  build  a  bottomless  box  5  inches  deep,  2  feet  square  at  the 
top  and  1 8  inches  square  at  the  bottom — outside  measurements, — or  have  the 
tinsmith  make  a  round  bottomless  tin  form  5  inches  deep,  2  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  top  and  18  inches  at  the  bottom,  just  like  a  large  dishpan  without  a  bottom. 
Begin  at  one  side  of  the  platform,  tamp  in  i^  inches  of  concrete,  and  upon  it 
lay  heavy  woven  wire  fencing.  Allow  the  edges  of  the  wire  to  extend  within 
I  inch  of  the  outside  lines  of  the  platform.  Bring  the  platform  to  its  full  thickness 

by  immediately  placing  the  remaining  3^  inches  of 
concrete.  Work  rapidly  and  do  not  stop  for  any 
reason  until  the  cistern  cover  is  completed.  As  the 
work  progresses,  finish  the  surface  with  a  wooden 
float.  Grease  the  manhole  frame  and  place  it  where 
the  opening  is  desired.  Strengthen  the  floor  around 
the  manhole  opening  by  laying  four  short  %-inch 
iron  rods,  placed  criss-cross,  2  inches  from  the  bottom 
,  of  the  slab  and  the  same  distance  back  from  the  edges 
of  the  hole.  If  the  tin  form  is  used,  the  manhole 
cover  may  be  cast  at  the  same  time  as  the  remainder 
of  the  floor.  Reinforce  the  cover  with  woven  wire 
and  also  with  four  short  lengths  of  }/£-inch  rods  laid 
in  the  form  of  a  square.  Have  on  hand  an  old  bridle 
bit  or  hitching  post  ring,  which  will  serve  as  a  lifting- 
ring  for  the  concrete  cover.  In  placing  the  ring  in  position,  provide  it  with  a 
knob  of  twisted  wire,  or  with  a  nut  and  large  washer,  to  fix  it  firmly  in  the  concrete. 
If  the  wooden  manhole  form  is  used,  carefully  remove  it  after  5  hours.  After 
3  days  build  the  manhole  cover  the  same  as  for  the  tin  form,  with  this  important 


-• 


m 
$$ 

M 
$& 

g? 


exception  —  place  heavy  paper,  cardboard  or  leather  around  the  edge  of  the 
opening  to  prevent  the  fresh  concrete  of  the  cover  from  sticking  to  it.  Set  bolts 
for  a  pump  base  according  to  directions  given  for  GASOLINE  ENGINE  BASES, 
pp.  87,  88.  The  necessary  openings  for  down  spouts  and  for  removing  water  may 
be  made  by  embedding  tile,  of  the  proper  diameter  and  length,  in  the  concrete 
platform  or  side  walls. 

When  the  platform  is  two  weeks  old,  remove  the  manhole  cover,  bore  a  hole  in 

the  wooden  floor,  saw  an  opening 
descend  and  loosen  the  roof  form, 
passing  it  out  through  the  man- 
hole. 

If  the  cistern  water  is  to  be 
used  for  cooking  and  drinking, 
provide  a  filter  on  the  outside  of 
the  cistern  wall.  Construct  the 
filter  similar  to  the  cistern,  of 
dimensions  4  by  3  feet  and  4  feet 
deep.  While  building  the  cistern 
wall,  lay  an  8-inch  tile  through  it, 
at  the  proper  height  to  connect 
with  an  opening  of  the  same  size 


~ 


c 


. 


m 

m 
$% 

•i-:v 

m 
I 


m 
&% 

'^ 


in  the  filter  wall  at  its  floor,  and 
place  a  removable  screen  of  34- 
inch  mesh  over  the  opening.  Fill 
in  2  feet  of  coarse  charcoal.  Cover 
the  charcoal  with  I  foot  of  sand 
and  gravel.  Lead  the  water  from 

the  roof  into  the  top  of  the  filter.     Cover  the  filter  with  a  loose  concrete  slab. 

Four  men  built  a  cistern  8  feet  square  and  8  feet  deep,  with  a  6-inch  floor  and 

a  5-inch  platform,  in  two  days.     The  cistern  holds  1  22  barrels  of  3  1  J^  gallons. 


Materials  Required 

Screened  gravel  or  crushed  rock 8  cubic  yards  at  $1.10.  . .  . 

Sand 4  cubic  yards  at  $i .00 ....     4.00 

Portland  cement 13  barrels  at  $2.50 32.50 

$45-30     ^ 

"Soft"  water  is  not  only  better  for  the  bath,  but  also  makes  the  washing  easier 
and  the  clothes  whiter.  Mischievous  children  cannot  remove  concrete  manhole 
covers. 

Making  Spring  Water  Sanitary 

To  the  planter  and  stockman,  a  flowing  spring  is  worth  a  great  deal  of  money. 
Properly  cared  for,  it  will  afford  cold,  sweet  water  for  the  house,  the  dairy,  and  the 
watering  tanks.  Improperly  protected,  it  is  not  merely  a  mud  hole,  a  nuisance  to 
the  milker  of  dairy  cows,  but  is  too  frequently  the  cause  of  disease. 

To  improve  a  spring,  first  open  up  the  channel  and  drain  out  all  the  water 
possible.  Clean  out  the  spring  so  as  to  increase  its  flow.  Lay  the  necessary  feed 
pipes  to  the  house  and  barn.  Wall  up  the  well  of  the  spring  with  concrete  blocks, 


70 


laid  without  mortar  to  a  point  just  above  the  inflow  streams  of  the  spring.  Com- 
plete the  walls  with  blocks  laid  in  I  :  2  cement-sand  mortar,  or,  using  wooden  forms, 
with  a  6-inch  solid  wall  of  I  :  2  :  4  concrete.  Carry  these  walls  high  enough  to 
keep  surface  water  out  of  the  spring  well.  If  the  spring  is  to  be.  used  as  a  drinking 
tank  for  stock,  make  the  walls  equal  to  the  usual  depth  of  such  tanks.  (See 
WATERING  TROUGHS  AND  TANKS,  page  74.)  Lay  a^4-inch  floor  of  i  :  2^  :  5 
concrete  (on  a  drainage  foundation)  10  feet  around  the  field  spring  on  all  sides. 

At  the  edges  of  the  floor,  turn  down  a  concrete  "apron"  or  foundation,  2  feet 
into  the  ground,  the  same  as  for  FEEDING  FLOORS,  page  43.  This  prevents  the 
frost  from  getting  under  the  floor  and  cracking  it. 

Make  provision  for  the  overflow  at  a  point  where  it  can  be  carried  to  the 
stream  by  a  gutter  in  the  floor,  or  by  a  drain  tile  under  it. 

With  such  improvement,  since  there  is  no  mud,  the  stock  cannot  mire  and 
the  udders  of  the  dairy  cows  are  always  clean. 

To  keep  rats  and  rabbits  out  of  springs  from  which  the  water  is  drawn  for 
house  use,  provide  a  concrete  cover  like  that  described  for  UNDERGROUND  CIS- 
TERNS, page  69.  For  small  springs  this  cover  is  often  made  removable  as  shown  in 
the  photograph  on  page  73. 


71 


New  Style  Cistern  Built  on  Top  of  Ground 

The  photograph  shows  a  cistern,  6  by  6  by  12  feet,  inside  dimensions,  with 
8-inch  walls,  6-inch  floor,  and  4-inch  roof. 

Dig  a  pit  12  inches  deep,  and  of  the  size  of  cistern  desired;  Cover  the  bottom 
with  a  well-tamped  fill  of  gravel  to  a  depth  of  6  inches.  Mix  concrete  1:2:4  and 
place  it  to  a  depth  of  2  inches  over  the  surface  of  the  fill.  On  top  of  this  lay  sec- 
tions of  heavy  woven  wire  fencing.  This  wire  should  be  laid  in  such  a  way  as  to 
extend  6  inches  beyond  the  outside  edge  of  foundation — the  ends  being  bent  up, 
so  as  to  stand  upright,  3  inches  back  from  the  edge  of  the  concrete  flooring  already 
placed.  Immediately  lay  the  remaining  4  inches  of  concrete  floor.  Give  the  sur- 
face a  finish  with  a  wooden  float  to  within  6  inches  of  edges. 

Without  delay,  set  the  forms,  made  up  in  the  required  sections,  resting  the 
inside  form  on  the  concrete  floor  and  the  outside  form  on  the  ground.  Place  the 
inside  form  first.  After  setting  the  inside  form,  place  woven  fence  wire,  supporting 
it  against  the  inside  form  by  means  of  staples  driven  lightly  into  the  form  and 
holding  the  wire  4  inches  away  from  it.  Care  should  be  taken  in  placing  the 
concrete  that  the  wire  is  kept  near  the  outside  of  the  concrete  wall.  This  rein- 
forcement is  carried  I  foot  beyond  top  of  wall.  The  projecting  wire  mesh  will 
later  be  used  to  tie  the  concrete  roof  to  the  side  walls.  The  timber  required  for 
the  forms  will  be  i-inch  siding  and  2  by  4  uprights,  spaced  every  18  inches. 

In  placing  the  concrete  in  the  forms,  it  will  be  easier  to  leave  off  the  two 
top  feet  of  planking  of  outside  form  until  the  concrete  reaches  its  level.  Then 
add  this  planking  and  fill  the  two  top  feet.  The  concrete  will  probably  have  to  be 
passed  up  to  a  man  on  top  by  means  of  buckets. 

The  luxury  of  soft  water  for  the  bath,  and  its  advantages  for  laundry  purposes, 
are  understood  better  by  farmers  than  by  their  city  cousins.  Cisterns  were  origin- 
ally built  in  the  ground,  but  a  thinking  farmer  used  concrete  "to  build  a  cistern  on 


72 


top  of  the  ground,  no  doubt  taking  the  idea  from  the  old-fashioned  rain  barrel. 
While  it  requires  more  forms  and  more  reinforcement  than  a  cistern  built  in  the 
ground,  yet  the  large  cost  of  digging  a  deep  hole  is  saved.  As  the  water  is  piped 
to  the  house,  direct  water  pressure  is  provided,  thereby  giving  the  farm-house  all 
the  advantages  of  a  city  water  system. 

Build  a  wooden  platform  inside  the  cistern,  in  the  same  manner  as  directed 
in  UNDERGROUND  CISTERNS,  page  69.  The  materials  required  for  the  concrete  are 
10  yards  of  crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel,  5  yards  of  sand,  and  17  barrels  of 
Portland  cement. 


.Me<3vy- woven  wir* 
fencing 


^g  — "1 

_*^*_r..L 


_ I 


73 


Watering  Troughs  and  Tanks 

All  thrifty  farmers  are  building  their  tanks  and  troughs  of  concrete, 
troughs  never  rot,  rust,  or  leak. 

By  using  concrete,  tanks  of  any  size  and  shape  can  be  made. 


Such 


Watering  Tank  for  Horses  and  Cattle 

Most  stockmen  prefer  to  build  their  watering  tanks  oblong  in  shape.  Having 
decided  upon  the  size,  locate  the  tank  in  a  handy,  well  drained,  wind-sheltered 
place. 

To  build  a  tank  like  the  one  shown  in  the  picture,  lay  out  the  trough  5  by 
16  feet.  Make  an  excavation  for  a  drainage  foundation  as  directed  under  SIDE- 
WALKS, page  29.  Around  the  outside  dig  a  lo-inch  trench  2  feet  6  inches  deep. 
Lay  all  in-flow  and  over-flow  pipes  (not  less  than  i}^  inches  in  diameter)  so  that 
the  ends,  fitted  for  connections,  will  be  even  with  the  finished  bottom  of  the  tajik. 

Build  the  forms  and  have  the  necessary  reinforcing  on  hand  before  mixing 
any  concrete.  The  tank  is  5  by  16  feet  by  2^  feet  deep  with  an  8-inch  bottom. 
The  walls  are  5  inches  thick  at  the  top  and  10  inches  at  the  bottom.  (The  sloping 
face  allows  the  ice  to  slip  up  the  sides  instead  of  pushing  directly  against  them.) 
Consequently  the  inside  forms  at  the  bottom  are  5  inches  shorter  at  each  end 
than  at  the  top. 

The  forms  are  nothing  more  than  shell  boxes  made  from  odd  lengths  of  I  -inch 
siding  nailed  to  2  by  4-inch  studding  spaced  not  more  than  2  feet  apart.  The 
sides  of  the  forms  may  be  made  separate  and  put  together  in  place ;  or,  if  there  is 
sufficient  help,  each  form  may  be  entirely  completed  and  set  up  as  one  piece.  The 
forms  are  held  in  position  by  2  by  4-inch  liners  at  top  and  bottom,  and  if  necessary 
by  sloping  braces  nailed  to  stakes  driven  in  the  ground.  Cut  strips  of  heavy  woven 
wire  fencing  sufficiently  long  to  cover  the  bottom  and  to  project  up  into  the  walls. 


74 


With  the  forms  ready,  mix  a  batch  of  I  :  2  :  4  concrete.  Beginning  at  one 
end,  fill  the  trench,  and  upon  the  gravel  foundation  place  a  2-inch  layer  of  concrete 
in  width  slightly  greater  than  a  width  of  wire.  Upon  this  concrete  lay  a  section 
of  wire.  Tamp  in  the  remaining  6  inches  of  concrete  and  bring  up  the  extra 
length  of  the  wire  so  that  the  ends  will  project  up  into  the  future  side  walls.  Con- 
tinue laying  the  concrete  in  sections  until  the  bottom  is  completed.  Finish  the 
surface  with  a  wooden  float. 

Immediately  set  the  wall  forms  in  place,  and  set  them  level  by  using  a  car- 
penter's level.  Fill  the  wall  space  with  concrete.  Half  way  up  the  side  and  I 
inch  from  the  outside,  lay  a  3/2-inch  iron  rod  entirely  around  the  tank.  Again 
2  inches  from  the  top,  and  I  inch  from  both  inner  and  outer  edges,  lay  two  rods 
of  the  same  size.  If  a  tank  cover  is  desired,  set  bolts  in  the  concrete  as  directed 
under  CORN  CRIB  FLOORS,  page  53. 

To  prevent  mud  holes,  surround  the  tank  with  a  concrete  floor.  (See  FEEDING 
FLOORS,  page  43.)  Protect  the  green  tank  from  drying  out  according  to  instruc- 
tions under  SIDEWALKS,  pages  28-34. 


Materials  Required 

Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel,  7  cubic  yards at  $1.10, 

Sand,  3%  cubic  yards at     i.oo. 

Portland  cement,  1 1  %  barrels at    2.50 . 


..  $7-70 
•  •     3-50 

-.   28.75 


$39-95 

Watering  Troughs  for  Hogs 

Troughs  for  hogs  are  built  in  two  styles — wedge-shaped,  like  the  feed  trough 
shown  on  page  49,  or  like  troughs  for  cattle  except  smaller.  Use  short  lengths  of 
i -inch  pipe  crosswise  to  keep  the  hogs  out  of  the  trough.  Set  bolts,  properly  spaced, 
in  the  soft  concrete  sides,  so  that  the  pipes  will  fit  between  them  and  can  be  held 
firm  by  a  strap  iron  over  the  bolts. 


75 


Dipping  Vats  and  Tanks 

The  younger  generation  have  no  remembrance  of  the  epidemic  of  Texas  or 
southern  fever  which  swept  over  the  country  about  forty  years  ago,  killed  thou- 
sands of  cattle,  and  left  hundreds  of  bankrupt  farmers  and  ranchmen  in  its  wake. 
Government  experts  found  that  this  deadly  disease  is  caused  by  ticks,  which 
infest  cattle  in  certain  localities.  They  also  discovered  that  the  fever  can  be  pre- 
vented by  dipping  the  animals  in  chemical  solutions.* 

Dipping  cures  not  only  Texas  (known  as  "splenetic")  fever,  but  also  the  lip 
and  leg  disease,  mange,  and  scab  or  scabies  of  both  sheep  and  cattle.  Certain 
solutions  free  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  of  lice,  mites,  fleas,  and  flies.  The 
only  method  of  applying  these  chemicals,  surely  and  thoroughly  to  all  parts  of 
the  animal,  is  by  giving  him  a  plunge  in  a  tank  containing  the  healing  liquid. 
Since  the  dip  is  the  most  costly  part  of  the  process,  and  since  it  must  be  applied 
once  or  twice  every  year,  some  permanent  form  of  tank  is  needed — one  that  \*ill 
not  rot  or  rust  out,  leak  or  heave  in  during  winter.  Concrete  vats,  built  ten 
years  ago,  without  one  cent's  worth  of  repair,  are  still  as  good  as  new  and  are  still 
giving  entire  satisfaction. 

There  are  four  important  points  to  be  considered  in  the  building  of  a  dipping 
tank: 

First — An  entering  slide,  steep  enough  to  shoot  the  animal  in,  without  a  direct 
drop.  A  direct  drop,  the  entire  depth  of  the  tank,  is  likely  to  injure  the  animal. 

Second — The  tank  must  be  narrow  enough  to  prevent  the  animal  turning 
around  when  once  in,  long  enough  to  keep  him  in  from  one  to  two  minutes,  and 
deep  enough  not  only  to  make  him  swim,  but  also  that  he  may  disappear  entirely 
when  he  takes  the  plunge. 

*  For  free  bulletins  on  dipping  write  the  Agricultural  Department,  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 


76 


Third — The  slope  at  the  leaving  end  must  be  gentle  and  the  footing  roughened 
or  cleated  so  that  the  animal  may 
easily  scramble   to   the  dripping 
pens. 

Fourth — As  the  liquid  dip  is 
the  most  expensive  part  of  dip- 
ping, there  must  be  provided  two 
dripping  pens  draining  back  into 
the  tank. 

Select  a  well-drained  site  con- 
venient for  a  chute  leading  from 
a  small,  well-fenced  lot  or  corral. 
At  the  narrow  end  of  the  chute 
and  in  line  with  it  lay  out  the 
dipping  tank  with  the  entering 
slide  next  to  the  chute. 

Often  the  chute  is  built  on  a 
curve,  so  that  the  animals  cannot 
see  where  they  are  going. 

They  are  generally  con- 
structed with  a  hump  in  the 
floor.  This  prevents  the  animal 
from  jumping  into  the  dip,  and 
gives  the  necessary  length  to  the 
slide,  without  increasing  the  depth 

of  the  tank.     Choose  the  proper  dimensions  from  the  diagrams  and  table  accord- 
ing to  whether  the  tank  is  to  be  used  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  hogs. 

The  lengths  given  will  keep 
the  animal  in  the  tank  one  minute, 
usually  a  sufficient  time  to  cure 
mild  forms  of  disease.  Where  a 
longer  treatment  is  desired,  most 
ranchmen,  instead  of  building 
tanks  of  greater  length,  provide  a 
drop  gate  working  in  a  groove, 
as  shown  in  the  photograph,  by 
means  of  which  the  animal  is  kept 
in  the  tank  as  long  as  necessary. 
Likewise,  rather  than  build  a 
separate  tank  for  sheep  and  hogs, 
stockmen  insert  a  temporary 
division  fence,  running  the  full 
length  and  depth  of  the  cattle  and 
horse  tank.  This  fence  should 
be  solid  and  so  spaced  as  to 
prevent  hogs  and  sheep  from 
turning  around  in  the  tank.  In 
this  way  a  single  dipping  tank 
may  be  used  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs. 


77 


Dig  the  deep  part  of  the  hole  first,  and  then  slope  the  earth  for  the  slide  and 
climb.  Lay  the  outlet  drain  pipe  so  that  the  top  of  the  elbow  bend  will  be  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  finished  concrete  bottom.  Tamp  back  the  dirt  thoroughly 
about  the  drain  tile  before  placing  concrete. 

The  side  walls  only  will  require  forms.  If  the  banks  stand  firm,  inside  forms 
alone  will  be  needed.  Make  these  of  i-inch  boards  on  2  by  4-inch  uprights.  Mix 
the  concrete  1:2:4  and  lay  the  floor  and  slopes  directly  on  the  solid  earth. 
No  fill  is  necessary.  The  concrete  for  the  sloping  ends  should  be  mixed  fairly  dry 
so  that  it  will  tamp  well  and  stay  in  position  without  the  use  of  forms.  With 
the  bottom  and  slopes  built,  lower  the  side  wall  forms  into  the  pit.  Take  care  to 
jar  no  dirt  upon  the  concrete  already  placed.  Space  the  forms  properly  and 
cross-brace  them  firmly  upon  each  other.  Fill  the  wall  space  with  concrete. 

In  placing  this  concrete,  be  sure  that  it  strikes  the  wood  form  instead  of  the 
earthen  side,  as  concrete  mixed  with  earth  makes  a  weak,  leaky  wall.  Carry  the 

walls  6  inches  above  the  surrounding 
ground  to  prevent  flood  water  from 
running  into  the  tank. 

The  entrance  slope  should  be 
smooth  to  slide  the  animals  into  the 
tank  without  skinning  them  up. 
Finish  this  surface  with  a  wooden 
float  and  steel  trowel.  Some  ranch- 
men prefer  to  cover  the  entire  slide 
with  a  polished  steel  plate,  the  edges 
of  which  are  sunk  into  the  concrete 
when  the  slide  is  built.  To  aid  the 
animals  in  climbing  out,  embed  in 
the  concrete  the  turned-up  ends  of 
iron  cleats  bent  at  right  angles  simi- 
lar to  a  capital  "U."  Old  wagon 
tires,  cut  in  lengths  not  greater  than 
20  inches  and  turned  up  4  inches  at 
each  end,  will  do.  Leave  I  inch 
clearance  between  the  flat  surface  of 

the  cleats  and  the  concrete.     Space  the  cleats  18  inches  for  horses  and  cattle  and 
10  inches  for  sheep  and  hogs. 

At  the  leaving  end  of  the  tank,  lay  out  the  two  dripping  pens  with  their  division 
fence  on  a  line  with  the  center  line  of  the  tank,  so  that  a  gate  hung  to  this  fence 
may  close  either  pen,  when  it  is  full,  and  allow  the  animals  from  the  tank  to  pass 
to  the  empty  pen.  Use  concrete  posts  for  the  fences,  as  they  will  require  no 
replacing.  Excavate  for  the  drainage  foundation,  set  the  posts,  and  build  a  6-inch 
concrete  floor  according  to  the  directions  given  under  SIDEWALKS,  page  28,  and 
FEEDING  FLOORS,  page  43.  Slope  the  floors,  34  inch  to  each  foot  in  length  or  width, 
so  that  the  dip  running  off  the  animals  will  be  saved  and  returned  to  the  tank. 
Corrugate  or  groove  the  floor  to  the  depth  of  %  inch,  every  8  inches,  in  one 
direction.  During  the  construction  of  the  floor,  mold  around  the  outside  a  concrete 
curb,  commonly  called  a  splashboard,  6  inches  above  the  floor  and  4  inches  wide. 
Where  the  dip  from  the  floor  empties  into  the  tank,  place  a  removable  wire  screen 
or  strainer  to  keep  the  droppings  and  wool  tags  out  of  the  vat.  Cure  the  floors 


78 


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and  slopes  according  to  directions  under  FEEDING  FLOORS,  page  43.     The  wall 
forms  may  be  removed  after  one  week,  but  the  tank  should  not  be  used  until  it  is 

three  weeks  old. 

At  first  state  and  federal  au- 
thorities had  to  force  ranchmen 
to  dip,  but  so  beneficial  has  it 
proved  that  compulsion  is  now 
seldom  necessary.  Experienced 
cattle-men  have  found  by  ac- 
tual tests  that  dipping  in- 
creases the  market  value  of 
their  steers  $5  per  head.  The 
cost  of  dipping  on  the  farm 
is  only  i^  to  3  *cents  jper 
head — in  the  stock  yards  the 
charge  is  15  to  20  cents.  One 
large  ranchman,  who  lost  28 
per  cent,  of  his  herd  (several 
thousand)  in  one  winter  with 
the  mange,  found  his  first 
trial  of  dipping  so  effective 
in  curing  this  disease  that 
the  following  winter  he  did 
not  lose  a  single  steer.  The 
use  of  dips  has  become  so 
general  in  the  South  and  West 
that  the  Government  has  raised  the  quarantine  in  most  sections. 


The  Construction  of  a  Concrete  Milk  Vat 

Dig  a  pit  to  a  depth  of  I  foot  6  inches  and  place  wooden  forms  in  such  a  way 
as  to  provide  for  tank  walls  6  inches  thick  and  I  foot  8  inches  in  height.  This  will 
bring  the  walls  only  8  inches  above  ground  level — which  makes  it  easy  to  lift  the 
milk  cans  in  and  out. 

Use  a  wet  mixture  of  concrete,  of  proportions  I  12:4.  Place  as  described 
on  page  74;  and  be  sure  to  build  walls  and  floor  at  the  same  time.  The  floor 
should  be  6  inches  thick. 

The  vat  described  has  a  par- 
tition 6  inches  thick,  dividing  the 
tank  into  two  chambers,  each 
chamber  being  6  feet  9  inches 
long.  An  iron  grating  is  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  allow 
free  circulation  of  cooling  water 
around  and  under  the  milk  cans. 
Arrangements  must  be  made  for 
inlets  and  outlets.  The  inlet  pipe 
can  be  simply  placed  above  one 
end  of  tank. 

The  pipe  rail  at  back  of  tank 
provides  a  convenient  purchase 
when  lifting  heavy  cans  from  the 
tank. 

A  hole  must  be  provided  at 
the  other  end  of  tank,  in  the  bot- 
tom, and  connecting,  by  an  iron 
pipe,  with  the  drain  tile.  Into  this  hole  a  removable  upright  iron  pipe  is  fitted, 


81 


the  length  of  pipe  depending  on  the  depth  of  water  desired  for  the  cans.  This 
allows  the  water  to  come  only  to  the  top  of  the  pipe  and  provides  an  overflow  out- 
let at  the  proper  height.  The  pipe  must  fit  tightly  into  the  hole. 

Time  required  to  build: — one  day  with  three  men  on  the  job. 

Approximate  cost,  at  current  prices  of  materials  and  including  labor,  $16.00. 

The  materials  required  are  2  cubic  yards  of  crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel,  i 
cubic  yard  of  sand,  and  5  barrels  of  Portland  cement. 

Small  Farm  Buildings 

Numerous  small  structures  are  required  on  the  farm.  Dog  kennels,  tool 
houses,  coal  houses,  ice  houses,  hydraulic  ram  houses,  smoke  houses,  acetylene 
gas  plant  houses,  gasoline  storage  houses,  milk  houses  and  many  similar  buildings 
are  a  necessity  on  every  well  improved  farm.  Such  structures  are  all  of  simple 
design  and  can  be  easily  built  of  concrete. 

When  once  constructed  of  this  material  durability  and  freedom  from  fire  are 
assured.  For  such  buildings  as  milk  houses  built  of  concrete  instead  of  \|ood, 
there  is  the  added  advantage  of  cleanliness.  Modern  dairying  demands  absolute 
cleanliness.  Concrete  meets  this  demand. 


82 


Tongue  and  groove. 
Wood  panel. 


Milk  Houses 

Milk  splashed  on  wooden  walls  soaks  in,  causing  a  very  disagreeable  odor 
likely  to  taint  milk  stored  in  the  vat.  Concrete  does  not  absorb  milk  splashed  on 
it.'  Such  walls  can  be  kept  free  from  tainting  odors  by  simply  washing  them  down. 
In  concrete  dairy  houses,  with  concrete  vats,  the  milk  will  keep  sweet  longer  than 
in  houses  built  of  any  other  material.  Dairy  experts  all  admit  that  no  other 
material  can  take  the  place  of  concrete  for  such  purposes. 

The  illustration  shows  a  simple  form  of  milk  house  with  walls,  floor  and  vat, 
all  of  concrete.  This  house  is  16  feet  long,  10  feet  wide  and  8  feet  high  with  a 
rise  to  the  roof  peak  of  5  feet. 

LOCATION 

The  milk  house  should  be  located  near  the  barn  and  convenient  to  a  clean  water 
supply.  Care  must  be  taken  to  provide  for  the  outflow  of  the  water  from  the  vat. 
This  can  be  done  by  leading  a  line  of  pipe  from  the  vat  to  a  discharge  point  at  a 
lower  level  or  to  the  drinking  troughs  for  the  stock. 


83 


Often  the  water  from  a  flowing  spring  can  be  piped  several  hundred  feet  to 
the  house,  providing  an  excellent  means  of  keeping  the  milk  cool  and  sweet. 

FOUNDATION 

To  build  such  a  milk  house  as  shown,  dig  a  trench  for  the  foundation  3  feet  deep 
and  12  inches  wide.  Fill  the  trench  to  the  ground  level  with  I  :  2^/2  :  5  concrete. 
The  foundation  should  be  laid  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  extend  3  inches  beyond  the 
inside  and  3  inches  beyond  the  outside  of  the  walls  of  the  house. 

WALLS 

As  soon  as  the  concrete  foundation  has  become  hard  enough  to  support  them, 
erect  the  wall  forms.  These  forms  consist  of  i-inch  siding  nailed  to  2  by  4-inch 
studding.  The  studs  should  be  spaced  2  feet  apart  and  the  i-inch  sheathing  is 
nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  studding  toward  the  concrete.  For  small  buildings  it 
is  often  easier  to  build  an  entire  wall  form  flat  on  the  ground  and  then  raise  it  into 
position.  The  bottoms  of  the  studs  rest  on  the  concrete  foundation  and  are  held 
in  position  by  strips  nailed  to  them  and  extending  to  stakes  driven  firmly  into  the 
ground.  The  distance  the  inside  and  outside  forms  are  spaced  apart  depends 
upon  the  thickness  of  wall  desired.  Sloping  braces  leading  from  the  studs  to  the 
ground  keep  the  side  forms  from  bulging  and  cross-cleats  nailed  at  the  top  keep 
the  inside  and  outside  forms  the  correct  distance  apart.  Bulging  of  forms  can 
also  be  prevented  by  wiring  them  together  as  shown  on  page  23.  On  page  22  is  a 
description  of  the  general  method  of  building  forms.  Especial  care  must  be 
taken  to  hold  the  forms  in  position  while  placing  the  concrete.  The  studs  in  the 
side  wall  forms  for  this  house  should  be  cut  off  at  the  height  of  the  walls.  With 
the  wall  forms  secured  in  position  fill  them  with  concrete. 

DOORS  AND  WINDOWS 

A  space  must  be  left  in  the  walls  for  the  doors  and  windows.  This  is  done  by 
placing  between  the  wall  forms,  frames  or  boxes  without  top  or  bottom  made 
of  i-inch  boards.  When  the  wall  form  has  been  filled  to  the  level  of  the  bottom 
of  the  opening  a  frame,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  opening  desired  is  secured  firmly 
in  place  and  the  concrete  poured  around  it.  After  the  wall  reaches  a  level  2  inches 
above  the  frame  lay  in  the  fresh  concrete  two  }/£-inch  iron  bars.  These  pieces 
should  be  long  enough  to  extend  8  inches  beyond  each  side  of  the  frame.  A  piece 
of  old  wagon  tire  can  be  used  instead. 

The  sill  shown  in  the  sketch  can  be  molded  by  building  a  small  box  extending 
out  from  the  side  form.  The  concrete  should  be  placed  for  the  sill  at  the  same  time 
that  the  wall  is  being  built.  For  buildings  such  as  we  have  mentioned  a  sill  is 
unnecessary. 

FINISHING  TOP  OF  WALL 

When  the  side  walls  have  been  built  to  the  top  and  before  the  concrete  has 
set,  shove  3^-inch  bolts  18  inches  long  down  into  it.  Space  these  bolts  24  inches 
apart,  9  inches  of  the  length  being  in  the  concrete.  The  end  wall  forms  extend 
above  the  plates  to  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  are  filled  to  the  top.  While  placing 
the  concrete  in  the  walls  it  should  be  continually  spaded  as  described  on  page  25. 

BUILDING  THE  ROOF 

The  roof  is  built  by  nailing  2  by  4  rafters  to  the  inside  studs  of  the  side  wall 
forms,  on  a  line  I  inch  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  roof.  The  rafters  are  given 


84 


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the  pitch  desired  for  the  roof,  and  are  securely  fastened  where  they  meet  at  the 
ridge.  To  stiffen  the  roof  form  until  the  concrete  has  become  hard  tie  the  opposite 
rafters  together  at  the  bottom  (with  a  i-inch  strip)  in  the  form  of  a  capital  "A." 
One-inch  boards  are  nailed  on  the  rafters.  The  cornice  shown  in  the  sketch 
extending  beyond  the  wall  can  be  easily  built  by  nailing  a  board  the  width  of  the 
cornice  to  the  tops  of  the  outside  studs  of  both  side  and  end  walls.  To  hold  the 
concrete  in  place  as  the  roof  is  being  built  nail  a  5-inch  upright  strip  along  the  out- 
side edge  of  this  board.  Bend  the  bolts  projecting  above  the  walls  down  to  within 
i  inch  of  the  roof  boards.  Spread  a  layer  of  heavy  woven  wire  fencing  over  the 
entire  roof,  allowing  it  to  extend  to  the  outside  of  the  cornice.  Wire  the  fencing 
securely  to  the  bent  bolts.  Place  two  i^-inch  steel  rods  near  the  outside  of  the 
cornice  all  the  way  around  the  roof,  and  fasten  these  securely  to  the  woven  wire 
fencing.  The  roof  should  be  made  3  inches  thick  and  the  stone  used  for  the  con- 
crete should  not  be  larger  than  J/£  inch. 

Mix  the  concrete  fairly  stiff  and  start  placing  it  at  the  cornice,  working  toward 
the  ridge.  Spread  the  concrete  out  in  a  thin  layer  and  then  lift  the  woven  wire 
fencing  and  the  two  rods  in  the  cornice  so  that  the  concrete  is  I  inch  thick  below 
the  wire.  Cover  the  rods  and  wire  with  more  concrete  to  a  depth  of  2  inches. 
When  finished  the  roof  will  then  be  3  inches  thick,  I  inch  below  the  wire  and  2 
inches  over  it.  Always  work  from  the  low  edge  of  the  roof  and  finish  to  the 
complete  depth  of  3  inches  at  once.  Imbed  a  width  of  woven  wire  fencing 
lengthwise  over  the  ridge  of  the  roof  I  inch  beneath  the  surface.  The  work  must 
be  carried  on  without  interruption.  The  concrete  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry 
along  an  unfinished  edge,  as  there  is  danger  of  a  leak  where  fresh  concrete  is 
joined  to  that  already  hard.  Tamp  the  concrete  until  moisture  comes  to  the  surface 
and  smooth  off  the  top  of  the  roof  with  a  wooden  float  and  steel  trowel. 

The  forms  must  be  left  in  place  for  at  least  a  week  and  the  concrete  in  the 
roof  must  be  protected  from  the  sun  and  wind  while  it  is  hardening.  A  method 
for  doing  this  is  described  on  page  26  under  SIDEWALKS. 


86 


FLOOR 

When  the  forms  have  been  removed  from  the  walls  and  roof  the  floor  can  be 
laid.  Excavate  the  ground  to 
a  depth  of  4  inches  below  the  fin- 
ished floor  level.  Mix  and  lay 
the  concrete  as  described  on 
page  31. 

The  concrete  milk  vat  should 
be  built  at  the  same  time  and  as 
a  part  of  the  floor.  See  descrip- 
tion on  page  82. 

ENGINE  BASE 

Engines,  cream  separators, 
pumps  and  other  pieces  of  ma- 
chinery require  solid  bases. 
These  bases  must  be  permanent, 
and  free  from  any  vibration. 
A  base  constructed  of  concrete 
possesses  these  advantages. 

To  form  a  base  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  small  engine,  first  exca- 
vate a  pit  2  feet  4  inches  deep, 
and  i  foot  larger  both  in  length 
and  width  than  the  dimensions 
of  the  engine  base.  Fill  the  pit 
with  a  mixture  of  concrete, 
(i  :  2^/2  •  5)»  and  then  construct 
a  form  which  will  carry  the  con- 
crete to  a  height  4  inches  above 
the  floor  level  or  to  the  height 
desired. 

Bolts  should  be  set  in  the  concrete  before  it  dries,  these  being  sufficiently 
long  to  bend  4  inches  at  right  angles,  and  to  extend  I  foot  deep  into  the  concrete, 
with  bent  end  down.  They  should  be  placed  with  the  upright  part  surrounded  by 
gas  pipe  of  twice  the  diameter  of  the  bolt,  and  of  a  length  sufficient  to  come  flush 
with  the  surface  of  the  concrete.  The  open  space  formed  around  the  bolt  by 
the  pipe  will  allow  for  slight  errors  in  locating  bolts,  so  as  to  meet  the  holes 
in  the  engine  base. 

Keep  the  concrete  wet  for  24 
hours  after  placing,  by  sprinkling. 
After  six  days,  set  the  engine,  adjust 
the  bolts,  and  fill  the  spaces  around 
the  bolts  with  cement  mortar, 
mixed  I  part  cement,  I  part  sand. 
Do  not  use  the  engine  until  the 
concrete  base  is  at  least  two  weeks 
old. 


14- 


87 


Concrete  Ice  House 

A  concrete  base  adds  years  of  service  to  the  life  of  a  gasoline  engine  or  cream 
separator. 

METHOD  APPLIES  TO  ALL  BUILDINGS 

The  method  just  described  for  building  a  milk  house  applies  equally  well  to 
any  of  the  small  houses  mentioned  above.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  build  a 
peaked  roof;  sometimes  aflat  roof  will  answer  the  purpose;  but  the  general  method 


Grain  Elevator  Approach  and  Engine  House 


Hydraulic  Ram  House 

in  all  cases  is  the  same.     The  drawings  show  in  detail  the  way  a  door  can  be  built 
and  framed  and  also  how  the  windows  can  be  made  to  slide  up  and  down. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  CONCRETE 

.   Concrete  alone  possesses  the  necessary  fireproof  qualities  for  such  buildings 
as  smoke  houses,  where  there  is  always  great  danger  from  fire. 

Oil  lamps  are  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past  on  modern  farms.  Acetylene  and 
gasoline  plants  furnish  a  better  and  safer  light.  These  plants  are  built  either 
above  or  below  ground.  In  either  case  concrete  is  the  ideal  material,  since  it  is 
both  fire  and  waterproof. 

The  durability  of  concrete  is  particularly  valuable  for  such  buildings  as 
hydraulic  ram  houses,  which  must  always  be  located  near  streams,  and  ice  houses, 
where  there  is  always  moisture.  Wood  quickly  rots,  but  moisture  has  no  effect 
on  concrete. 

For  tool  houses,  coal  houses,  and  buildings  subjected  to  rough  usage,  nothing 
equals  concrete. 

Concrete,  for  small  buildings,  meets  the  three  great  demands  of  the  farmer — 
cleanliness,  freedom  from  fire,  and  durability. 


89 


Concrete  Cellar  Steps  and  Hatchway 

Cellarways  are  particularly  liable  to  leak  and  cause  a  damp  cellar.  This  cannot 
happen  if  they  are  made  of  concrete.  There  are  no  cracks  through  which  the 
water  can  come.  Wooden  steps  last  no  time,  particularly  where  heavy  barrels 
and  similar  weighty  loads  are  taken  up  and  down.  As  wooden  or  brick  areaways 
are  always  damp,  the  steps  rot  quickly,  thus  requiring  constant  renewal.  Few 
things  are  more  dangerous  to  limb,  and  even  to  life,  than  a  step  giving  way  under 

the  weight  of  a  heavy  barrel 
which  is  being  carried  into  the 
cellar. 

Concrete  steps  are  safe  under 
any  load. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  con- 
crete can  be  molded  into  any 
desired  shape,  it  is  particulkrly 
desirable  for  this  purpose.  Some 
people  like  steps  with  a  low  rise 
and  a  particularly  wide  tread, 
while  others  prefer  a  high  rise 
and  narrow  tread.  Concrete  can 
easily  be  fitted  to  either.  The 
determining  feature  is  usually  the 

space  to  be  occupied.  The  door  into  the  cellar  limits  the  depth  to  which  the  steps 
are  taken,  and  therefore  the  height  of  the  risers;  while  the  room  the  cellarway  is 
to  take  outside  the  line  of  the  wall  determines  the  width  of  the  tread.  If  possi- 
ble, the  rise  of  each  step  should  be  from  6  to  8  inches,  while  the  width  of  the 
tread  should  be  from  9  to  12  inches. 

Note:  See  page  112  for  Window  Hatchway. 


90 


In  erecting,  first  excavate  the  hole  to  the  width  of  steps  desired,  plus  one  foot. 
This  allows  for  a  6-inch  wall  on  either  side.  Slope  the  ground  from  I  foot  back 
of  where  the  top  step  is  to  come  to  I  foot  back  of  where  the  bottom  step  will  be. 
To  form  the  steps,  saw  out  a  board  just  as  you  would  a  "horse"  for  steps,  and  nail 
planks  where  the  risers  come,  holding  the  two  "horses"  the  proper  distance  apart. 
This  is  placed  upside  down,  resting  on  the  top  and  bottom,  with  the  edge  of 
the  top  and  bottom  rise  where  the  bottom  and  top  steps  are  to  come.  Fill  this 
form  and  the  space  back  of  it  with  1:2:4  concrete,  starting  with  the  bottom  step, 
and  continuing  upward  to  the  top,  bringing  the  concrete  in  each  step  to  the  top 
of  rise.  Side  forms  for  the  6-inch  walls  may  now  be  placed,  braced  apart  in  the 
center  properly,  and  resting  on  the  back  of  the  horses.  These  can  be  carried  to  any 
height  desired  to  give  the  hatchway  doors  a  proper  slope  for  shedding  rain  and  snow. 
Forms  will  have  to  be  built  on  the  outside  of  these  wralls  above  the  ground  line 
to  hold  the  concrete  in  place.  Before  the  concrete  sets  in  the  side  walls,  bolts  should 
be  placed,  with  heads  in  the  concrete,  by  means  of  which  wooden  sills  are  fixed  to 
the  walls  for  fastening  the  cellar  doors  by  strap  hinges.  If  the  bottom  step  does 
not  come  to  the  wall  line,  the  flat  landing  in  the  bottom  should  be  covered  with  a 
5-inch  thickness  of  concrete.  Here  is  a  convenient  place  to  locate  a  drain,  to  carry 
off  the  water  used  in  sluicing  down  the  steps,  and  any  which  may  leak  through 
the  cellar  doors. 

The  cellar  hatchway  shown  in  the  photograph  and  in  the  drawing  is  5  feet 
wide,  built  according  to  directions  above.  The  side  walls  at  the  cellar  are  7  feet 
high  and  10  feet  long.  The  slope  for  the  cellar  doors  is  2  feet  4  inches.  There  are 
7  steps  of  8-inch  rise  and  lo-inch  tread  and  a  landing  3  feet  2  inches  wide.  Two 
men  built  this  hatchway  in  i^  days. 

Materials  Required. — Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel,  2^  cubic  yards  at 
$1.10,  $2.48;  sand,  iJ/&  cubic  yards  at  $1.00,  $1.13;  Portland  cement,  3%  barrels 
at  $2.50,  $9.37.  Total,  $12.98. 


91 


Root  Cellars  of  Concrete 

The  increasing  use  of  roots,  as  winter  feed  for  animals,  has  brought  about  the 
construction  of  root  cellars  as  a  means  of  preserving  this  valuable  food.  A  root 
cellar  must  be  sufficiently  warm  and  dry  to  keep  roots  from  freezing  or  rotting. 
By  building  the  cellar  below  ground  the  warmth  is  greatly  increased.  To  do 
this,  however,  a  material  must  be  employed  which  is  moisture-proof  and  which 
will  not  rot.  For  these  reasons  use  concrete. 

The  cellar  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  91  extends  5  feet  below,  and  2 
feet  above  ground  level.  The  walls  are  5  inches  thick,  and  are  made  of  concrete 
proportioned  I  12:4. 


Choose  a  well  drained  site,  and  dig  a  pit  in  the  earth  to  the  desired  depth  and 
with  an  entrance-way  so  sloped  as  to  make  provision  for  concrete  steps,  which 
will  have  a  rise  of  7  inches  and  a  tread  of  10  inches. 


92 


Build  a  floor  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  walls.  Set  inside  box  form  and  fill 
the  space  between  this  form  and  the  earthen  side  walls  with  the  wet  concrete,  the 
same  as  for  UNDERGROUND  CISTERNS,  page  68. 

Above  the  ground  level  an  outside  form  must  be  used.  The  roof  is  built  in 
the  way  described  on  page  86  except  the  thickness  is  increased  to  5  inches. 

Ventilators  are  provided  in  the  roof,  by  imbedding  lengths  of  sewer  pipe  in 
the  concrete.  Add  galvanized  tin  hoods  to  keep  out  the  rain. 

By  referring  to  page  90,  there  will  be  found  a  description  of  how  to  build  a 
hatchway  and  steps. 

Immediately  after  the  side  wall  forms  have  been  erected,  the  door  frame 
should  be  set  in  its  required  position,  before  placing  concrete. 

Similar  structures  are  also  used  as  bee,  vegetable,  fruit  and  cyclone  cellars. 
Concrete  cellars  are  great  favorites  with  growers  of  apples,  potatoes  and  cabbage. 
By  adjusting  the  ventilator  openings,  the  temperature  can  always  be  kept  at  just 
the  right  point.  Moreover,  since  rats  and  mice  cannot  gain  an  entrance  to  a  con- 
crete root  cellar,  there  is  no  waste  causing  decay,  and  the  vegetables  keep 
better. 

In  cold  climates  bees  must  be  warmly  housed  in  winter,  lest  they  freeze  to 
death.  By  no  other  means  than  underground  cellars  can  they  be  safely  brought 
through  the  winter.  The  bee  cellar  must  be  dry,  in  order  that  the  bees  stay  in  good 
health.  In  no  way,  can  there  be  provided  so  even  a  temperature  or  so  dry  an  at- 
mosphere, as  by  the  use  of  concrete.  Bees  kept  in  concrete  cellars  come  through 
the  winter  in  perfect  condition. 


Materials  Required 

Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel 1 1  cubic  yards  at  $1.10  ..  .$12.10 

Sand 5^  cubic  yards  at  $1.00  .  .     5.50 

Portland  cement 15  barrels  at  $2.50 35-OO 


$52.60 


93 


Poultry  Houses 


The  high  price  of  all  foods  has  made  poultry  raising  profitable.  But  to  have 
laying  hens  they  must  be  carefully  tended.  Their  houses  must  be  clean,  and  free 
from  draughts.  Young  chickens  must  be  protected  from  rats,  skunks  and  foxes. 

Concrete  houses  fill  every  requirement  of  an  ideal  poultry  house.  To  clean  a 
house  of  concrete,  spray  it  with  oil  and  burn  it  out.  Concrete  is  fireproof.  Rats 


94 


cannot  gnaw  through  a  concrete  floor  or  sidewalk.  In  a  concrete  house  there  are 
no  cracks  through  which  the  snow  can  sift,  or  in  which  lice  and  bedbugs  can  hide. 

Locate  the  poultry  house  where  there  is  plenty  of  sunlight  and  where  the 
concrete  poultry  yard  (see  FEEDING  FLOORS,  page  43)  may  be  wind-protected. 
Build  the  house  as  directed  under  SMALL  BUILDINGS,  page  82.  As  the  walls  are 
being  placed,  insert  short  pieces  of  gas  pipe  at  convenient  heights  to  support  the 
shelves  for  the  nests  (one  style  of  nest  shown  on  page  94)  and  the  rails  for  the 
roosts.  If  desired,  a  one-way-slope  concrete  roof  may  be  made. 

Make  the  floor  on  an  8-inch  fill  of  gravel,  or  of  slabs  built  on  a  smooth  floor 
and  later  set  in  place.  Lay  heavy  wire  fencing  in  the  concrete  slab  I  inch  from 
the  under  side. 

Poultry  Watering  Troughs 

To  rid  the  farm  of  cholera  and  roup,  nothing  aids  more  than  concrete  drinking 
troughs.  Occasionally  scrub  the  troughs,  spray  them  with  oil  and  burn  them  out. 

Duck  Ponds 

Ducks  need  water,  yet  if  they  are  allowed  to  go  to  a  nearby  stream,  many  are 
lost.  Poultrymen  are  building  ponds  of  concrete,  attached  to  the  water  supply  in 
such  a  way  as  to  provide  fresh  water  at  all  times.  For  building,  see  instructions 
under  HOG  WALLOWS,  page  52. 


v '  ry 


95 


Retaining  Wall  and  Steps 

Terraces,  if  too  steep,  will  not  stay  sodded,  and  if  too  flat,  take  up  room  which 
would  otherwise  be  a  part  of  the  lawn.  The  neatest  way  is  to  place  a  retaining 
wall  along  the  terrace  edge.  This  wall  is  built  in  the  same  way  as  the  wall  to  hold 

the   earth   in  a  barn  approach  de- 
scribed on  page  60. 

If  the  wall  is  over  one  foot  high 
steps  are  necessary.  A  most  con- 
venient arrangement  is  to  have  the 
bottom  step  come  flush  with  the  face 
of  the  wall,  making  it  impossible  to 
fall  over  one  or  two  projecting  steps 
in  the  dark. 

In  building,  insert  a  stop  planJ£ 
between  the  front  and  back  forms  to 
prevent  the  concrete  from  going  to 
the  full  height  of  the  wall.     The  bot- 
tom of  this  plank  should  be  kept  at 
a  height  above  the  bottom  of  the 
wall  sufficient  to  form  the  first  step. 
After  the  concrete  for  the  wall  is  placed,  remove  the  section  of  the  form  where 
the  steps  are  to  come,  and  dig  out  the  earth  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  hold  them. 
The  remaining  steps  are  built  in  the  manner  described  on  page  90. 
After  the  concrete  is  placed,  the  steps  should  be  closed  to  traffic  for  at  least 
one  week. 

In  the  background  of  the  photograph  on  page  72  may  be  seen  a  double 
terrace  wall  of  concrete,  each  wall  5  feet  high. 


96 


Concrete  Chimney  Caps 


As  a  large  proportion  of  fires  in  residences  originate  in  the  chimney,  it  is  well 
to  have  this  part  of  the  house  as  nearly  fireproof  as  possible.  It  can  be  made 
entirely  so  by  building  it  of  concrete.  If  this  is  not  convenient,  at  least  let  the 
chimney  cap  be  of  concrete. 

These  caps  are  cast  in  one  piece,  on  the  ground,  and  in  any  shape  desired. 

The  outside  form  is  a  wooden  box,  with  inside  dimensions  corresponding  with 
the  outside  dimensions  of  the  desired  cap.     Usually  the  cap  is  6  inches  thick,  and  has 
an  "over-hang"  or  "drip"  extending  on  all  sides  beyond  the  outside  of  the  chimney.* 
Thus,  if  top  of  chimney,  over  all,  is 
1 8  inches   square,   make  outer  form 
22  inches  square,  an  extra  allowance 
of  2   inches  on  all    sides,    thus  ob- 
taining a  cap  that  will  have  an  "over- 
hang" of  2  inches  all  the  way  around. 

The  inside  form  may  consist  of  a 
piece  of  terra-cotta  tile.  If  more 
than  one  opening  is  desired  in  the 
cap,  use  two  pieces  of  tile  or  as  many 
as  there  are  to  be  openings. 

Mix  concrete  I  :2  : 4,  the  mixture 

to  be  a  thoroughly  wet  one.  Place  in  the  form,  after  greasing  outside  of  terra 
cotta  so  that  same  may  be  easily  removed.  Leave  undisturbed  for  two  days.  Re- 
move forms  and  place  cap  in  position,  attaching  it  to  the  brick  chimney  with  a 
cement  mortar,  one  part  cement  to  one  part  sand. 

*  A  simple  method  for  building  a  chimney  entirely  of  concrete  is  described  on 
page  50. 


97 


Concrete  Makes  an  Excellent  Porch  Floor     ^ 

Where  even  a  part  of  a  building  is  subjected  to  unusual  wear,  either  from  use 

or  exposure  to  the  elements,  build 
it  of  concrete. 

Porch  floors  of  wood  rot  quickly 
when  laid  near  the  ground;  and, 
even  if  they  do  not  rot,  through 
constant  use  they  become  splintered 
and  faulty. 

As  concrete  is  a  stone  which 
can  be  made  into  any  shape  with- 
out cutting,  it  is  particularly  well 
adapted  for  porch  floors  of  any  size 
and  shape.  Its  lasting  qualities 


under  all  conditions  of  wear  and  exposure  have  been  so  often  mentioned,  it 
seems  useless  to  refer  to  them  again. 

Remove  the  old  wooden  floor,  first  placing  props  to  support  the  porch  roof, 
with  their  lower  ends  resting  outside  the  line  of  the  porch  floor.  The  pillars 
themselves  must  also  be  supported  if  they  are  not  to  be  replaced  by  concrete. 

The  floor  is  laid  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  a  feeding  floor  described  on  page  43. 
As  the  size  is  usually  small,  however,  the  floor  can  be  laid  in  a  single  slab  without 
joints.  If  a  smooth  surface  is  wished  for,  finish  first  with  a  wooden  float  and  then 
with  a  steel  trowel. 

Do  not  put  too  much  elbow  grease  into  the  finishing.  If  you  do,  small  cracks 
are  likely  to  come  on  the  surface  and  spoil  the  looks  of  the  floor. 

No  material  could  be  more  useful  than  concrete  for  the  porch  of  a  school 
house  where  hundreds  of  little  feet  scuff  and  stamp  daily. 

A  porch  of  concrete  is  free  from  vermin,  fireproof,  easily  scrubbed,  and  needs 
no  repairs. 

Hot-Beds  and  Cold-Frames 

Fresh  vegetables  may  be  had  during  the  winter  at  small  expense  by  every 
suburbanite,  if  he  builds  a  hot-bed  or  cold-frame.  By  their  use  early  spring  plants 
can  also  be  given  a  good  start.  Since  the  bed  must  be  placed  partly  in  the  damp 
ground,  the  only  material  to  be  considered  for  this  purpose  is  concrete,  which 
does  not  rot  out  and  which,  being  free  from  cracks  and  joints,  makes  the  warmest 
bed  in  cold  weather. 

Locate  the  bed  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  building,  if  possible,  on  the  south  side. 
Dig  the  pit  the  width  and  length  of  the  hot-bed,  not  less  than  3  feet  deep.  The 
one  shown  is  39  feet  long  and  divided  into  3  equal  compartments.  Make  box 
forms  of  i -inch  lumber  to  carry  the  south  (front)  wall  6  inches  and  the  north 
(back)  wall  15  inches  above  ground.  The  end  walls  slope  to  the  others.  If  the 


99 


bed  is  not  near  a  building,  extend  the  back  wall  2  feet  higher  to  serve  as  a  wind- 
break. Before  filling  the  forms  with  concrete,  test  their  width  by  laying  on  a 
sash.  See  that  it  laps  full  2  inches  at  each  end. 

Mix  the  concrete  mushy  wet  in  proportions  I  :  2^  :  5.  Fill  the  forms  without 
stopping  for  anything.  Tie  the  walls  together  at  the  corners  by  laying  old  iron 
rods  in  them  bent  at  right  angles.  During  the  placing  of  the  concrete  set  %- 
inch  bolts  about  2  feet  apart  to  hold  the  wooden  framing  to  the  concrete;  or 
make  grooves  in  the  tops  of  the  walls  for  sinking  the  frames  level  with  the  top 
of  the  concrete,  allowing  one-quarter  inch  at  each  end  for  clearance.  This  can 
be  done  by  temporarily  embedding  in  the  soft  concrete  a  wooden  strip  of  the  nec- 
essary width  and  thickness.  Remove  the  forms  after  six  days.  Divisions  may  be 
built  along  with  the  walls  or  later  as  convenient.  One  and  one-half  days  were 
required  for  two  men  to  build  a  hot  bed  5^  by  12%  feet  in  the  clear. 

Materials  Required 

Screened  gravel  or  broken  stone 2^  cubic  yards  at  $1.10.  . 

Sand i^£  cubic  yards  at  $1.00.  . 

Portland  cement 3^  barrels  at  $2.50 


'^M 

// 


100 


Tree  Repair 

Nothing  adds  so  much  to  the 
home-like  appearance  of  a  place  as 
good  shade  trees.  But  trees  are  like 
teeth — they  need  attention.  Boring 
insects  often  cause  decay.  The 
hollow  becomes  larger.  The  wind 
blows  the  weakened  tree  down. 
The  "looks"  of  the  place  is  ruined. 
It  takes  at  least  a  lifetime  to  produce 
another  such  tree. 

By  means  of  concrete,  many 
famous  old  trees,  seemingly  about 
gone,  are  now  saved.  Open  up  the 
cavity  with  a  hand-axe.  With  a 
mallet  and  chisel  cut  out  every  bit  of 
the  rotten  wood,  and  stop  the  flow 
of  sap  by  painting  the  cavity  with 
liquid  asphalt.  Reinforce  small  cavi- 
ties with  nails  as  shown  in  the  photo- 
graph, larger  cavities  with  rods,  wire 
and  spikes.  Carefully  fill  every  crev- 
ice with  a  i  :  3  cement-sand  mortar. 
By  slightly  trimming  the  edges  of 
the  bark  around  the  filling,  once  or 
twice  a  season,  the  bark  will  grow 
entirely  over  the  concrete. 


101 


Rollers  of  Concrete 

Frost  coming  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring  raises  the  lawn  into  humps. 
If  these  are  not  rolled  down  at  once,  the  lawn  is  rough  all  summer. 

Rollers  were  originally  made  by  the  farmer  from  logs  of  wood.  These  were 
abandoned  for  the  more  expensive  iron  rollers,  purchased  in  the  nearest  town. 
Today  farmers  are  again  making  rollers,  but  are  using  concrete.  An  iron  roller 
with  a  cylinder  from  2  to  3  feet  in  length  will  cost  from  $15  to  $20,  whereas 
one  of  the  same  size  constructed  of  concrete  will  cost  practically  nothing. 

Obtain  a  length  of  sewer  pipe,  of  the  size  of  roller  wished  for.  A  tile  from  12 
to  24  inches  in  diameter  will  usually  suit  the  purpose.  Set  this  tile  on  end,  small 
end  down,  on  a  wooden  platform.  Through  a  hole  bored  in  the  platform  insert  a 
I -inch  round  iron  bar,  long  enough  to  project  beyond  the  ends  of  the  roller  a  suffi- 
cient distance  to  provide  bearings  and  attachment  for  the  handles.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  get  the  bar  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  tile  before  placing  concreti, 
and  to  keep  it  there  while  the  concrete  is  being  placed.  Make  a  wet  mixture  of  con- 
crete (1:2: 4),  and  fill  the  tile  with  this  mixture,  up  to  the  "  bell "  of  the  tile.  Allow 
the  concrete  to  set  for  ten  days,  when  the  roller  may  be  placed  on  side,  and  the  bell 
of  pipe  chipped  off  with  a  cold  chisel  and  hammer.  Attach  a  forked  handle,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  As  the  axle  is  a  firmly-fixed  part  of  the  roller,  the  fork 
ends  of  the  handle  must  be  provided  with  holes,  within  which  the  axle  can  turn. 

A  roller  18  inches  in  diameter  and  2  feet  long  will  weigh  about  600  pounds. 
If  a  lighter  roller  is  desired,  use  a  smaller  sized  sewer  pipe;  or  place  several 
small  pipes  inside  the  large  one,  depositing  the  concrete  around  them  on  the  out- 
side. They  will  form  hollow  spaces  inside  the  roller  and  lessen  its  weight. 

By  increasing  the  size  pipe,  or  by  using  a  steel  mold  and  attaching  a  pair 
of  shafts  or  a  tongue  instead  of  a  handle,  horse  rollers  for  crushing  the  clods  in 
the  ploughed  fields  may  be  made. 


102 


Hay  Caps  and  Tarpaulin  Weights 

With  the  usual  shortage  of  labor  in  the  harvest  season  and  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  showers,  to  secure 
sweet,  unmolded  hay  it  has  become 
necessary  to  cover  the  hay  cocks 
with  a  canvas  or  muslin  cover. 
The  best  weights  to  hold  down  the 
covers  are  made  of  concrete.  Mix 
the  concrete  I  part  Portland  cem- 
ent to  2  parts  sand,  mold  them 
like  doughnuts  or  as  cakes  with  a 
galvanized  wire  loop,  and  set  them 
aside  in  a  damp  place  for  7  days 
before  using. 

Trash  Burner  or 
Garbage  Receiver 

Trash  and  leaves  must  be 
burned  without  danger  to  the  sur- 
rounding property.  A  concrete 
burner  affords  the  only  safe  and 
inexpensive  means. 

Dig  out  the  dirt  to  the  depth 
of  6  inches.  For  forms  choose  two 
barrels,  one  of  which  will  set  within 
the  other  with  a  clearance  on  all 
sides  of  6  inches.  Adjust  the  height 
by  cutting  off  their  butts.  Make 
an  opening  through  which  a  metal 
ash  box  can  be  inserted  or  over 

which  an  iron  door  can  be  hung.  Fill  the  foundation  hole  and  the  forms  with 
1:2:4  concrete.  Remove  the  outside  form  after  two  weeks.  The  fire  will  later 
take  care  of  the  inner  form.  After  three  weeks  the  burner  may  be  used. 


103 


Concrete  Posts 

When  a  man  buys  a  farm,  he  examines  first  the  condition  of  its  general  improve- 
ments. If  the  fences  are  "all  run  down,"  he  must  take  into  consideration  the  cost 
of  repairing  or  replacing  them — a  matter  of  no  small  importance  and  expense  in 
these  days  of  high  priced  labor  and  lumber.  The  cheapest  fence  is  not  always  the 
one  lowest  in  first  cost.  Intelligent  purchase  of  fencing  materials  means  buying 
those  which  last  longest  with  least  repairs. 

A  railroad  probably  has  more  fencing  along  its  right  of  way  than  any  single 
property  owner,  and  to  avoid  damage  suits,  the  fences  must  at  all  times  be  in  per- 
fect repair.  As  fast  as  their  wooden  fences  rot  out  and  burn  down,  they  are 
replacing  them  with  concrete.  Not  only  has  the  lasting  quality  of  concrete  recom- 
mended itself,  but  the  ever  increasing  shortage  of  the  lumber  supply  has  made  the 
purchase  of  good  wooden  posts  impossible,  and  the  cost  of  poor  posts  high. 

Concrete  posts  in  first  cost  are  seldom  more  expensive  than  wooden  posts. 
The  life  of  a  wooden  post  is  from  3  to  5  years,  while  concrete  posts  last  foreve4 
Weather  and  fire  do  not  injure  them.  Even  forest  fires  cannot  harm  a  line  of 
concrete  posts. 

The  United  States  Government,  recognizing  the  importance  of  this  subject, 
has  issued  Farm  Bulletin  No.  403,  entitled  Concrete  Fence  Posts.  This  bulletin 
can  be  obtained  free  upon  application  to  the  Agricultural  Department,  or  to  your 
Congressman. 

Hitching  posts,  made  in  a  slightly  larger  box  form,  with  a  bolt  and  ring  inserted 
in  the  concrete  before  it  has  hardened,  add  neatness  to  the  house  surroundings. 
Gate  posts  of  concrete,  nothing  more  than  heavy  fence  posts  made  long  enough  to 
take  the  highest  fence,  prevent  sagging  gates,  so  hard  to  open.  A  concrete  clothes 
post  is  ready  for  the  clothes  line  and  the  wash  every  Monday  morning.  The  weight 
of  the  wet  clothes  does  not  break  them  down  or  cause  them  to  sag.  Clothes 
never  have  to  be  rewashed  due  to  dragging  in  the  dirt. 


104 


/• 


Corner  Stones  and  Survey  Monuments 

To  property  owners,  as  well  as  engineers,  survey  monuments  which  last  forever 
and  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  surrounding  rocks,  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Expensive  re-surveys  and  legal  fights  can  be  avoided  by  making  such  monuments 
easily  distinguishable,   perma- 
nent, and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
avoid     confusion    with    other 
marks.     The   use  of  concrete 
for  this  purpose  fills  all  the  re- 
quirements   better   than    any 
other  material. 

Get  from  the  proper  pub- 
lic official  (usually  the  county 
engineer  or  surveyor)  the  ex- 
act location  of  corner  stones. 
Drive  four  s-takes  in  the 
ground  so  that  strings 
stretched  between  every  other 
stake  will  cross  each  other  di- 
rectly over  the  original  monu- 
ment. 

Remove  the  old  monu- 
ment, and,  with  a  post  auger, 
bore  a  hole  deep  enough  to 
reach  below  the  frost  line  (at 
least  3  feet  deep),  where  the 
old  monument  stood. 


105 


Fill  the  hole  with  concrete  mixed  I  '.2:4,  rounding  the  top  with  the  hands  so 
it  will  extend  3  or  4  inches  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground. 

While  placing  the  last  foot  of  concrete,  imbed  a  harrow  tooth,  iron  bolt,  or 
gas  pipe,  with  its  top  just  showing  above  the  finished  concrete  at  a  point  directly 
under  where  the  strings  cross.  Protect  the  monument  from  damage  by  stock 
for  one  week,  by  placing  a  box  over  it. 


Drain  Tile  Outlet  Walls 

In  developing  the  lowlands  for  farm  purposes — and  such  lands  are  now  most 
valuable — immense  sums  are  being  invested  in  concrete  drain  tile. 

Where  drain  tile  empty  into  an  open  ditch,  the  banks  of  the  ditch  around  the 
drain  tile  gradually  wash  away,  and  often  two  and  three  lengths  of  tile  become 
disjointed,  allowing  the  water  from  them  to  further  cut  away  the  field  land.  These 
exposed  tile  are  often  crushed  by  livestock.  Moreover,  clay  and  shale  tile  freeze, 
crumble,  and  mixed  with  the  earth  from  the  bank  frequently  close  the  outlet. 
Muskrats,  skunks  and  mink  use  the  tile  as  a  nesting  place,  and  the  drain  becomes 
stopped  up  and  drowns  out  the  crops. 

All  of  this  trouble  is  prevented  by  a  small  outlay  of  time  and  money  in  building 
a  concrete  retaining  wall  to  keep  the  end  of  the  drain  tile  from  washing  out  and  to 
protect  it. 

Choose  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  immediately  after  the  laying  or  cleaning  of 
the  string  of  tile,  when  little  water  is  in  the  ditch. 

Dig  a  trench  12  inches  wide  along  the  edge  of  the  open  ditch  2  feet  below  its 
bottom  and  under  the  end  of  the  line  of  tile.  This  trench  should  extend  along 
the  bank  for  from  4  to  6  feet,  with  wings  turned  into  the  bank  at  its  ends, 
sufficiently  long  to  prevent  water  from  getting  in  behind  the  wall  and  washing 
the  dirt  out. 

Mix  concrete  I  :  2^  :  5 — wet  enough  to  tamp  well. 

Fill  the  trench  with  concrete  up  to  the  ground 
level.  Should  the  trench  be  full  of  water,  place  this 
part  of  the  concrete  dry. 

Set  box  forms,  made  of  i-inch  siding  and  2  by  4- 
inch  studding.  These  forms  must  be  high  enough  to 
bring  the  wall  up  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  ditch 
banks.  At  the  proper  height  to  meet  the  string  of  tile, 
place  a  first-class  drain  tile  (at  least  one  size  larger 
than  the  regular  string)  through  the  forms  so  that  the 
front  end  will  be  flush  with  the  outside  wall  after  con- 
crete is  placed. 

Bore  two  small  holes  in  the  forms  above  this  tile, 

and  place  in  them  well  greased  pegs  of  wood.  After  the  forms  are  filled  with 
concrete,  these  pegs  are  removed,  the  holes  receiving  the  bolts  holding  a  flap  gate 
to  keep  animals  out  of  the  line  of  tile.  Fill  the  forms  with  concrete,  and  smooth 
off  the  top  of  wall  with  a  steel  trowel. 

Remove  the  forms  after  one  week,  and  fill  in  earth  behind  the  wall  to  its  top. 


106 


Spraying  Tanks 


San  Jose  scale  and  insects  are  everywhere  making  fruit  growers  spray  their 
orchards.  To  get  rid  of  the  continual  nuisance  of  leaks  and  the  handling  of  warm 
solutions,  orchardmen  are  building  elevated  concrete  tanks  and  are  heating  the 
spraying  solution  with  steam  pipes  on  the  tank  bottoms.  With  such  a  plant,  there 
is  no  delay — and  time  counts  in  the  spraying  season. 

The  tank  shown  stands  on  10  by  12-inch  columns,  6  feet  clear  of  the  ground. 
It  has  two  compartments,  each  5  by  5  feet  by  4  feet  deep  holding  750  gallons. 
The  side  walls  are  4  inches  thick.  Beneath  the  4-inch  bottom,  on  all  sides,  are 
8  by  12-inch  concrete  beams. 

Locate  the  tank  convenient  to  the  water  supply.  Dig  the  column  holes  12 
inches  square,  3  feet  deep,  1 1  feet  out  to  out  on  the  longer  side  and  5  feet  on  the 
shorter.  Have  all  forms  ready  before  placing  any  concrete.  Fill  the  holes  with 
concrete  and  imbed  in  each  hole  four  ^-inch  iron  rods  10  feet  long  so  that  they 
will  come  right  for  the  columns  and  extend  through  them.  Set  up  the  10  by  12- 
inch  by  6-foot  column  forms  with  their  tops  level  with  each  other.  Join  them 
together  with  the  solidly  framed  8  by  12-inch  beam  forms. 

Keeping  the  rods  I  inch  from  the  corners,  fill  concrete  in  the  column  forms 
up  to  the  floor  beams.  Spread  I  inch  of  concrete  over  the  bottom  of  the  beam 
forms  and  lay  in  two  ^-inch  rods  i^  inches  from  each  side  wall.  Bend  these 
rods  around  those  in  the  columns.  Without  delay  fill  the  beam  forms. 

Erect  the  forms  for  the  tank  proper  as  for  WATERING  TANKS,  page  74.  In 
the  bottom  of  each  tank  set  a  i^-inch  flange  pipe  coupling.  Place  I  inch  of  con- 
crete, then  strips  of  heavy  woven  wire,  and  the  remaining  3  inches  of  concrete. 
Fill  the  side  walls  and,  I  inch  from  the  outside,  imbed  similar  wire  fencing.  Protect 
the  green  concrete  according  to  directions  under  watering  tanks. 

The  materials  required  are:  screened  gravel  or  crushed  rock,  4^  cubic  yards; 
sand,  2%  cubic  yards;  and  Portland  cement,  7^  barrels. 


107 


Culverts  are  Permanent  When  Made  of  Concrete 

The  secret  of  good  roads  is  good  drainage.  Standing  water  soaks  into  the 
road  bed,  softens  the  road  surface  and  causes  ruts.  To  keep  well  made  roads  in 
first-class  condition,  get  the  water  to  the  highway  drain  tile  as  fast  as  it  falls. 
This  can  be  accomplished  only  by  means  of  culverts. 

The  perfect  culvert  is  one  which  does  not  rot  or  rust  out,  which  does  not  crush 
down  and  clog  up  the  opening,  which  lasts  forever.  Concrete  is  the  only  material 
which  fills  the  bill. 

The  best  time  to  build  a  culvert  is  in  the  dry  months  of  summer.  They  can 
be  shaped  either  round  or  square  and  of  a  size  depending  on  the  amount  of  water 
which  must  be  removed  quickly.  Usually  openings  12  to  18  inches  are  large 
enough.  Set  the  culvert  as  deep  in  the  road  bed  as  possible,  but  do  not  place  the 
outlet  end  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  into  which  the  culvert  drains.  To 
keep  the  culvert  well  beneath  the  road  bed,  if  necessary,  make  the  side  ditcji 
deeper  at  the  inlet  end.  Determine  the  grade  line  of  the  finished  culvert  bottom. 
Only  a  little  slope  is  needed.  Dig  the  trench  6  inches  deeper  than  the  grade 
line  and  as  wide  and  long  as  necessary.  The  width  of  the  trench  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  culvert  to  be  built,  and  its  length  upon  the  width  of  roadway 
under  which  the  water  is  to  be  carried.  The  concrete  walls  are  each  6  inches 
thick,  so  the  width  of  the  trench  will  be  I  foot  greater  than  the  clear  width  of  the 
culvert.  Fill  this  trench  with  concrete  mixed  I  :  2^/2  '  5»  and,  while  it  is  still  wet 
place  in  the  center  of  it  a  U-shaped  box,  turned  upside  down,  of  i-inch  boards,  the 
outside  of  which  is  the  size  of  the  culvert  desired.  Fill  concrete  into  the  space 
between  the  sides  of  the  box  and  the  sides  of  the  trench  and  tamp  concrete  over  the 
top  to  a  depth  of  8  inches.  Road  culverts  should  not  be  less  than  18  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  roadway. 

To  prevent  the  material  of  which  the  road  is  made  from  washing  down  into 


108 


the  culvert,  small  wing  or  retaining  walls  must  be  built  at  each  end.  To  do  this 
dig  an  8-inch  trench  3  feet  deep,  at  each  end  of  the  culvert  along  the  end  of  the 
culvert  barrel.  Frame  a  form,  the  width  and  height  necessary,  against  the  end 
of  the  box  or  pipe.  Make  another  form,  of  the  same  size,  but  U-shaped,  with 
the  opening  just  large  enough  to  fit  over  the  outside  of  the  concrete  culvert  barrel. 
Set  this  form  8  inches  inside  the  first.  Plumb  both  forms  and  brace  them  securely. 
Nail  boards  across  the  ends  of  these  two  forms  and  fill  them  with  concrete.  For 
one  week  shut  off  the  traffic  from  passing  over  the  culvert.  Allow  the  forms  to 
remain  in  place  for  two  weeks.  Replace  the  road  material  over  the  culvert  and 
keep  the  ruts  carefully  filled  until  the  fill  has  become  solid.  Since  there  are  usually 
many  culverts  to  be  built,  it  is  cheaper  to  use  a  collapsible  form,  adjustable  to 
several  sized  culverts. 

The  box  culvert  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  108  has  an  opening  18  inches 
wide  and  16  inches  deep.  The  length  is  20  feet.  The  retaining  walls  are  8  inches 
thick,  2  feet  high  (from  the  barrel  opening),  and  do  not  extend  beyond  the  culvert 
walls.  The  bottom  and  the  side  walls  are  6  inches  thick;  the  top,  8  inches.  Three 
men,  with  a  highway  commissioner  as  superintendent,  built  this  culvert  in  two 
days. 


Materials  Required 

Crushed  rock  or  screened  gravel 3  cubic  yards  at  $1.10  ....   $3.30 

Sand \y2  cubic  yards  at  $1.00. . .      1.50 

Portland  cement 4  barrels  at  $2.50 10.00 

$14.80 

Concrete  bridges  last  forever.     With  all  the  bridges  and  culverts  of  concrete, 
tax  officials  will  no  longer  need  to  levy  bridge  taxes. 


109 


Septic  Tanks 


The  proper  method  for  the  disposal  of  house  sewage  is  an  important  question 
on  the  farm.  Cess-pools,  simply  pits  dug  in  the  ground,  are  great  disease  spreaders. 
The  liquids  from  them  seep  through  the  ground,  carry  germs  from  the  pool  to  the 
well,  render  "  the  best  drinking-water  in  the  country  "  unfit  for  use,  and  often  cause 
the  spread  of  disease. 

The  modern  farmer  no  longer  puts  up  with  such  barbaric  practice.  Cess-pools 
have  long  been  prohibited  in  cities,  where  immense  sums  of  money  are  spent  for 
the  proper  disposal  of  sewage.  It  is  not  possible  to  provide  farms  with  these  ex- 
pensive plants,  nor  is  it  necessary.  Through  the  use  of  an  inexpensive  septic  tank 
all  of  the  conveniences  of  the  toilet  and  bath  may  be  installed  in  the  house  and  the 
danger  from  sewage  removed. 

Septic  tanks  are  nothing  but  long  underground,  water-tight  cisterns  through 
which  the  sewage  passes  very  slowly  and  evenly.  Located  underground,  they  a^p 
warm  and  dark — ideal  conditions  for  the  development  of  the  bacteria,  little  germs 


110 


which  eat  up  the  sewage  and  render  it  harmless  in  much  the  same  way  as  another 
kind  causes  cider  to  ferment.  To  prevent  the  bacteria  (which  live  in  the  frothy 
sludge)  from  being  disturbed  cross-walls,  called  baffle, boards,  are  placed  to  break 
up  the  current  of  the  inflowing  sewage.  The  purified  sewage,  merely  clear  water, 
may  be  discharged  into  the  farm  drain  tile. 

Locate  the  septic  tank  where  it  can  be  placed  entirely  with  the  side  walls 
underground  and  out  of  danger  of  flood  waters.  For  a  family  of  8  to  10,  plan  a 
tank  with  8-inch  walls,  5  feet  wide,  5  feet  deep  and  10  feet  long — all  dimensions  in 
the  clear.  Lay  out  the  tank  and  construct  it  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  UNDER- 
GROUND CISTERNS,  page  68. 

Before  filling  the  forms,  set  in  the  6-inch  inlet  and  outlet  drains  at  the  same 
height,  2  feet  6  inches  below  the  ground  level.  To  aid  further  in  breaking  up  the 
currents  and  keeping  out  too  much  air,  use  elbow  bends,  so  that  the  sewage  in  the 
tank  will  cover  the  mouths  of  the  tile.  In  the  side  forms,  at  a  distance  of  2  and  4 
feet  from  the  inlet  wall,  set  24-inch  bolts  to  which  the  baffle  boards  will  later  be 
attached.  These  boards  reach  entirely  across  the  tank,  project  above  the  sewage, 
and  extend  to  within  I  foot  of  the  bottom.  While  building  the  manhole  covers, 
for  the  needed  ventilation,  insert  in  them  four  short  lengths  of  i-inch  gas  pipe. 

Remove  the  forms  the  same  as  for  underground  cisterns. 


Concrete  Hydrant  Sink 


111 


Window  Hatches 

Window  hatches  should  be   protected  by  a  flap  cover,  to  close  in  times  of 
heavy  rain  or  snow. 


An  Outdoor  Swimming  Pool 

These  are  built  exactly  as  an  underground  cistern.     A  pool  near  home  affords 
a  safe  "swimming  hole"  for  the  children. 


112 


The  Association  of  American   Portland   Cement  Manufacturers  is  an 
Educational  and  Scientific  Body,  composed  of  the  following  Members: 


ALLENTOWN    PORTLAND    CEMENT 

CO.,  Allentown,  Pa. 
ALMA  CEMENT  CO.,  Wellston,  Ohio. 
ALSEN'S      AMERICAN      PORTLAND 

CEMENT  WORKS,  45   Broadway, 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
AMERICAN   CEMENT   CO.   OF  NEW 

JERSEY,     Pennsylvania     Building, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
ASH    GROVE    LIME    &    PORTLAND 

CEMENT  CO.,  R.  A.  Long  Building, 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
ATLAS  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO.,  30 

Broad  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
BATH  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO.,  Bath, 

Pa. 
CASTALIA  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Publication  Building,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
CAYUGA  LAKE  CEMENT  CO.,  Ithaca, 

N.  Y. 
CHICAGO  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

108  La  Salle  Street,  Chicago,  HI. 
COLORADO  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO. 

Denver,  Colo. 
CONTINENTAL  PORTLAND  CEMENT 

CO.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
COPLAY  CEMENT  MFG.  CO.,  Coplay, 

Pa. 
DEWEY   PORTLAND    CEMENT    CO., 

Scarritt  Building,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
DEXTER  PORTLAND   CEMENT   CO., 

Nazareth,  Pa. 
DIAMOND  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Williamson  Building,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
DIXIE     PORTLAND     CEMENT     CO., 

Richard  City,  Term. 
EDISON   PORTLAND    CEMENT   CO., 

Stewartsville,  N.  J. 
ELK    CEMENT    &    LIME    CO.,    Elk 

Rapids,  Mich. 
GERMAN-AMERICAN        PORTLAND 

CEMENT  WORKS,  La  Salle,  I1L 
GLENS  FALLS  PORTLAND  CEMENT 

CO.,  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 
HECLA  COMPANY,  THE,  808  Penob- 

scot  Building,  Detroit,  Mich. 
HELDERBERG  CEMENT  CO.,  78  State 

Street,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
HURON    PORTLAND    CEMENT    CO., 

Ford  Building,  Detroit,  Mich. 
IOLA  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO.,  lola, 

Kansas. 
IOWA  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO.,  Des 

Moines,  Iowa. 
LAWRENCE  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Siegfried,  Pa. 

LOUISVILLE  CEMENT  CO.,  Speeds,  Ind. 
MARQUETTE    CEMENT    MFG.    CO., 

La  Salle,  111. 

MONARCH  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Humboldt,  Kansas. 
NAZARETH  CEMENT  CO.,  Nazareth,  Pa. 


NEW   AETNA   PORTLAND    CEMENT 

CO.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
NEWAYGO  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
NORFOLK       PORTLAND       CEMENT 

CORPORATION,  604  Pennsylvania 

Bldg.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
NORTHWESTERN     STATES     PORT- 
LAND CEMENT  CO.,  Mason  City, 

Iowa. 
OKLAHOMA    PORTLAND     CEMENT 

CO.,  Ada,  Oklahoma. 
OMEGA   PORTLAND    CEMENT   CO., 

Jonesville,  Mich. 
PEERLESS  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Union  City,  Mich. 
PENINSULAR   PORTLAND    CEMENT 

CO.,  Jackson,  Mich. 
PENNSYLVANIA    CEMENT    CO.,    29 

Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
PHOENIX  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Nazareth,  Pa. 
PORTLAND  CEMENT  COMPANY  OF 

UTAH,  Salt  take  City,  Utah. 
SANDUSKY  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Sandusky,  Ohio. 
SECURITY    CEMENT    &    LIME    CO., 

Baltimore,  Md. 

SOUTHWESTERN     STATES     PORT- 
LAND CEMENT  CO.,  Dallas,  Texas. 
STANDARD  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Charleston,  S.  C. 
STANDARD      PORTLAND      CEMENT 

CORPORATION,  Crocker  Bldg.,  San 

Francisco,  Cal. 
SUPERIOR  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

THE,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
TEXAS    PORTLAND    CEMENT    CO., 

Cement,  Texas. 
UNION    SAND    &    MATERIAL    CO., 

Liggett  Bldg.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
UNITED    KANSAS    PORTLAND    CE- 
MENT CO.,  lola,  Kansas. 
UNITED  STATES  PORTLAND  CEMENT 

CO.,  Coors  Building,  Denver,  Colo. 
UNIVERSAL     PORTLAND     CEMENT 

CO.,  115  Adams  Street,  Chicago,  111. 
VIRGINIA  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

5  Nassau  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
VULCANITE  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO. 

Land  Title  Bldg.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
WABASH  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

Ford  Building,  Detroit,  Mich. 
WESTERN  PORTLAND  CEMENT  CO., 

135  Grand  Avenue,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
WESTERN   STATES  PORTLAND   CE- 
MENT CO.,  Jackson,  Mich. 
WHITEHALL    PORTLAND     CEMENT 

CO.,  Land  Title  Bldg.,  Phila.,  Pa. 
WOLVERINE    PORTLAND     CEMENT 

CO.,  Coldwater,  Mich. 

Foreign  Member 

CANADA  CEMENT  CO.,  LTD.,  Mont- 
real, Canada. 


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